Helping Collegiate Athletes Manage Performance Stress: The Role of Coaching Climates

Sport psychology researchers have demonstrated the value of creating caring, task-involving climates (CTICs) in sport, although more research with elite-level athletes is needed to better understand how the motivational climate might impact how they respond to and manage performance stress. Division I level athletes (N = 39; Mage = 20.40 y.o.) took part in a 45-min free throw shooting clinic with either a CTIC or an ego-involving climate (EIC). Participants were prescreened for potential confounds (e.g., autoimmune disorders). Post-surveys were used to assess athlete demand and resource evaluations and psychosocial stress experiences and responses. Saliva was collected prior to (t = 0) and following (t = +45, +60, +75, +90 min) the clinic to assess changes in salivary cortisol and IL-6, a marker of inflammation. Athletes responded to the EIC with a dual rise in cortisol and inflammation, indicators of psychosocial stress that can have implications for athletic performance and mental health. Compared to the EIC group, athletes in the CTIC responded much more favorably, with decreased cortisol and a challenge appraisal of stress (i.e., evaluations of coping resources > demands). Athletes in the EIC reported a threat appraisal (i.e., demand evaluations > resource evaluations), along with greater perceived psychosocial stressors (Cohen’s d = 3.47) and stress responses (Cohen’s d = 1.31), including shame-related feelings (Cohen’s d = 1.45). This research illustrates that even a brief 45-min immersion in an EIC can elicit concerning stress responses in elite-level athletes, whereas a CTIC may set athletes up to thrive.

This study investigated the relationship between the perceived coach-initiated motivational climate and psychological coping skills over a competitive high school football season as well as changes in perceptions of the climate over the season. Near the beginning (Time 1) and end of the season (Time 2), 101 players from five competitive high school American football programs completed the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 and the Athletic Coping Skill Inventory-28. A hierarchical linear regression revealed that Time 2 task-involving climate predicted Time 2 psychological coping skills when controlling for Time 1 psychological coping skills. Repeated measure multivariate analysis of variance results demonstrated that players perceived a decrease in the task-involving climate and an increase in the ego-involving climate over the course of the competitive season. These results add to the research on the positive role of a task-involving climate in the sport domain. Additionally, this research provides insight into how perceptions of the coach-initiated motivational climate can shift over the course of the competitive season.

Attitudes toward cooperative, competitive, and individualistic situations were correlated with measures of psychological health, orientation toward negative life stress, and marital satisfaction among 44 American stepcouples. Cooperativeness was unrelated to measures of wives' psychological pathology and orientation toward negative life stress but was positively related to wives' and husbands' marital satisfaction and husbands' overall psychological adjustment and positive orientation toward life events. Competitiveness was significantly related to wives' and husbands' psychological pathology and marital dissatisfaction, and was unrelated to orientation toward negative life stress. Individualistic attitudes were significantly related to wives' and husbands' psychological pathology and maladjustment, orientation toward negative life stress, and marital dissatisfaction. The results were stronger for the wives than for the husbands.

Researchers using an achievement goal theory and caring climate framework have highlighted the connection between fitness center members' climate perceptions and their exercise motivation. However, much of what is known comes from current members, with little known about former and non-members' perceptions. The purpose of this study was to compare current, former, and non-members' perceptions of the motivational climate of a university campus fitness facility. Faculty and staff ( N = 657) at a large American university completed a one-time mixed-methods survey about their perceptions of the motivational climate (i.e. caring climate; preference for caring, task-, ego-involving climate), staff behaviors (i.e. caring, task involving), and usage of their campus fitness facility. Despite usage, quantitative analyses indicated that all participants reported valuing a caring, task-involving climate over a non-caring, ego-involving climate when choosing a fitness center. When asked about the particular fitness center for this study, current members were more likely than former and never users to perceive a caring climate where staff engaged in task-involving behaviors. Content analysis of the qualitative comments revealed that three main themes emerged with regard to perceptions and fell into positive, negative, and neutral categories. Overall, current users were more likely to perceive caring behaviors among the staff such as taking measures to welcome members and supporting their individualized goals. Former and never users were more likely to perceive staff as unhelpful, unwelcoming, and unfriendly. In an effort to remove barriers to physical activity, fitness professionals should consider how their behaviors, interactions, and promotional materials impact individuals' decision of whether to exercise at their fitness facility. The findings include a discussion for fitness staff to consider when creating advertisement and outreach efforts as well as how to foster the most effective climate to attract and retain exercisers.

Adolescents, especially females, have been identified as a group at risk of poor health due to their declining level of physical activity. To prevent sporting attrition, several researchers highlighted the importance of the fit between the motivational context provided by the coach and the socio-emotional needs brought by adolescents. This study concerns the role of the coach's task- and ego-involving climate on the changes in 3 fundamental perceptions underlined by the self-determination theory (8): perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Contrary to the cross-sectional nature of the former studies, this one used longitudinal survey data from 236 French girl handballers. The 3 perceptions were measured by a questionnaire at the beginning and the end of one season. In the middle of the season, perceptions of coaches' motivational climate were also evaluated. Results showed that at the end of the season, feelings of competence, autonomy, and relatedness were both positively predicted by a task-involving climate and negatively predicted by an ego-involving climate, even after controlling for the level of each variable at the beginning of the season.

This study examined the effects of a university recreation center intervention aimed at increasing members’ perceptions of a caring, task-involving climate. In addition, members’ perceptions of staff behaviors and their own behaviors were measured. College students (N = 282) completed questionnaires before and after an intervention designed to increase perceptions of a caring, task-involving climate. Results revealed the intervention did increase members’ perceptions of the caring, task-involving climate while reducing perceptions of the ego-involving climate. Members’ perceptions of the staff and their own positive behaviors also increased. The staff’s behaviors predicted members’ perceptions of the three types of climates; moreover, members’ perceptions of the ego-involving climate negatively predicted their caring, task-involving behaviors. The study suggests that members’ perceptions of the climate can be positively influenced through minimal training with recreation center staff and that the behaviors in which the staff engage are an antecedent to members’ perceptions of the motivational climate.

ABSTRACTThis study examined the relationships between perceptions of the motivational climate, motivation regulations, and the intensity and functionality levels of athletes’ pleasant and unpleasant emotional states. Specifically, we examined the hypothesised mediational role of motivation regulations in the climate–emotion relationship. We also tested a sequence in which emotions were assumed to be predicted by the motivational climate dimensions and then served as antecedents to variability in motivation regulations. Participants (N = 494) completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing targeted variables. Structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed that a perceived task-involving climate was a positive predictor of autonomous motivation and of the impact of functional anger, and a negative predictor of the intensity of anxiety and dysfunctional anger. Autonomous motivation was a partial mediator of perceptions of a task-involving climate and the impact of functional anger. An ego-involving climate was a positive predictor of controlled motivation, and of the intensity and impact of functional anger and the intensity of dysfunctional anger. Controlled motivation partially mediated the relationship between an ego-involving climate and the intensity of dysfunctional anger. Good fit to the data also emerged for the motivational climate, emotional states, and motivation regulations sequence. Findings provide support for the consideration of hedonic tone and functionality distinctions in the assessment of athletes’ emotional states.

Self-compassion is a useful coping tool to enhance adaptive coping, promote well-being, and reduce anxiety in the face of stress (Neff, 2003a; Allen & Leary, 2010). Studies exploring the role of self-compassion within the context of sport indicate the utility of self-compassion for female athletes in coping with negative events in sport (Mosewich et al., 2013), promoting positivity and responsibility (Ferguson et al., 2014), and reducing negative self-evaluative thoughts (Mosewich et al, 2011). Within the context of Williams and Andersen's (1998) stress-injury framework and the moderating effect of coping resources on injury susceptibility, self-compassion was newly explored. Specifically, this study aimed to determine the role of self-compassion as a coping resource and a tool to cognitively reframe stressful sport and life experiences in collegiate athletes. The subsequent impact on frequency and severity of injury was also explored. Participants were collegiate athletes (n = 117) who participated in NCAA Division II sports at one university in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. A prospective study design was used to evaluate the associations between baseline measures of stress, anxiety and coping and frequency or severity of injury during the competitive season. Bi-variate analyses and multiple linear regression modeling were used to analyze the results. Findings indicated that self-compassion may buffer the experience of somatic anxiety (rs= -.436, p < .001) and worry ( rs= -.351, p < .001) in collegiate athletes and reduce the engagement of avoidance-focused coping strategies (rs= -.362, p < .001). However, several of the findings were in contrast with self-compassion research in the general population, which included a negative association between self-compassion and emotion-focused coping (rs= -.259, p < .001). There were no significant findings related to the role of self-compassion in injury risk reduction. Findings that focused specifically on the traditional components of Williams and Andersen's stress-injury model were also mixed. A negative association was found between positive life stress and frequency of injury (rs= -.257, p < .05), suggesting that certain positive experiences may be reduce injury risk. Additionally, negative life stress was negatively associated with emotion-focused (rs= -.242, p < .05) and avoidance-focused coping (rs = -.249, p < .05 ). However, there were no significant findings for negative life stress and injury. In summary, findings confirmed the role of several psychological factors in the stress-injury framework and indicated that there may be some use for self-compassion within the context of sport. There is

This investigation expands the research linking problem-solving skills to suicide by examining the role of problem-solving appraisal. In Study 1,277 students enrolled in introductory psychology courses completed measures of problem-solvi ng appraisal, negative life stress, and suicide ideation. In Study 2, 382 students enrolled in introductory psychology courses completed measures of problem-solving appraisal, negative life stress, and hopelessness. The results from both studies suggest that problem-solving appraisal and negative life stress are significant independent predictors of suicide ideation and hopelessness. The results are discussed in terms of Schotte and Clum's (1982, 1987) diathesis-stress-hopelessness model of suicidal behavior. Suicide is a growing concern in American society. This year approximately 28,500 people will commit suicide (Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 1986). In essence, these statistics reflect, in large part, an inability to cope with the myriad of life demands, problems, and hassles. Moreover, issues relating to suicide are of considerable interest to therapists, with regard not only to protecting clients but also to attempts to understand the interpersonal and intrapersonal dynamics pertaining to suicide. Suicide research has increasingly focused on the role that

The role of problem-solving self-appraisal and negative life stress in hopelessness among college students was examined. Subjects (n =186) completed the Problem-Solving Inventory, the Life Experiences Survey, the Self-Rating Depression Scale, and the Hopelessness Scale. The results of a hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that problem-solving self-appraisal and its interaction with negative life stress are independent predictors of hopelessness beyond depressed mood. Results are discussed in terms of the implications for future research and treatment of hopelessness and suicidal behavior.

Chamberlin, JM, Fry, MD, and Iwasaki, S. High school athletes' perceptions of the motivational climate in their off-season training programs. J Strength Cond Res 31(3): 736-742, 2017-Athletes benefit tremendously from working hard in off-season training (OST) because it sets them up to avoid injuries and perform their best during the season. Ironically, many athletes struggle to stay motivated to participate regularly in this training. Research has highlighted the benefits for athletes perceiving a caring and task-involving climate, where they gauge their success based on their personal effort and improvement, and perceive each member of the team is treated with mutual kindness and respect. Athletes who perceive a caring and task-involving climate on their teams are more likely to report greater adaptive motivational responses. Research has not currently examined athletes' perceptions of the climate in OST programs. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between athletes' perceptions of the climate in an OST program and their motivational responses. High school athletes (N = 128; 90 males 35 females; mean age = 15.3 years) participating in summer OST programs completed a survey that included measures of intrinsic motivation, commitment, their valuing OST, feeling like it is their decision to participate in OST, their perceptions that their teammates take OST seriously, and attendance. A canonical correlation revealed that athletes, who perceived a highly caring and task-involving climate reported higher intrinsic motivation, value of and commitment to OST; attendance; and perceived teammates take OST seriously. Results suggest that creating a caring and task-involving climate in OST programs may help athletes optimize their motivation to participate in important strength and conditioning programs.

The purpose of this study, grounded in the Achievement Goal Perspective Theory (AGPT) and a Caring framework, was to examine the extent that collegiate baseball players' perceptions of their team climate (i.e., caring, task-, and ego-involving climate) predict their mental well-being.Baseball players (N = 127) completed measures assessing perceptions of team climate (Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire, Caring Climate Scale) and mental well-being (World Health Organization-Five Well-Being Index).Spearman correlation analysis revealed a positive relationship between the caring and task-involving climate scales, and mental well-being, respectively.In a full entry model linear regression, caring climate emerged as a positive predictor of mental well-being, explaining 25% of the variance of athletes' mental well-being scores.The findings suggest that encouraging coaches to foster a caring and task-involving climate might assist in enhancing collegiate athletes' mental well-being.Athletes perceiving a high caring and task-involving environment are more likely to experience improved mental well-being.

In the Spring of 2020, Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) was officially declared a global pandemic, which prompted an unprecedented number of changes to societal functioning. Amongst those who experienced significant life alterations were collegiate athletes within the United States (US). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between US athletes' perceptions of their team motivational climate, perceived support from coaches and teammates, and their optimistic thoughts during the COVID-19 pandemic. US collegiate athletes (N = 756; 56.3% female; Mage = 20.07 years, SDage = 1.57 years) across a variety of levels (e.g., Division I) and sports (e.g., basketball) were invited to participate in this study. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed significant positive associations between a caring and task-involving climate, athletes' feeling supported by their coaches and teammates, and athletes' optimistic thoughts during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, an ego-involving climate was significantly negatively associated with athletes' feeling supported by their coaches and teammates. The final results suggest that the supportive actions of coaches and teammates during difficult times can mediate the positive connection between perceptions of a caring-task-involving climate on athletic teams and an athlete's ability to stay optimistic during difficult life stressors.

BackgroundMotivational climate in exercise group environments would have an impact on adherence, effort and enjoyment. We examined the motivational climate among nursing home residents who were involved in group exercise sessions.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted in 10 nursing homes of Liège area that offer group exercise sessions. Sociodemographic data (age, sex, body mass index), cognitive status (by the Mini Mental State Examination) and independence in activities of daily living (by the Katz Scale) were retrieved in the medical records. The “Abbreviated-Perceived Motivational Climate in Exercise Questionnaire” was translated into French and then administered face to face with a clinical researcher. This is composed of 6 ego-involving climate items (corresponding to rivalry, comparison and favoritism) and 6 task-involving climate items (corresponding to valorization, individual efforts, self-improvement and cooperation). Each item is ranged on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all focused on ego or task) to 5 (totally focused on ego or task). Each subscale has a total score expressed as an average.ResultsA total of 102 subjects of exercise group sessions were included (84.3 ± 7.7 years and 83 (81.4%) women). The mean score of task-involving and ego-evolving motivational climate was respectively 3.57 (SD = 0.67) and 1.52 (SD = 0.49), suggesting that the motivational climate was more focused on the task-involving climate than on ego-involving climate. Some items results were of particular interest: 55.9% of the respondents found that the instructor doesn’t remark/reward when they try hard, 63.7% said that the instructor doesn’t encourage mutual aid and 38.2% found that instructor doesn’t encourage to do new exercises.ConclusionsParticipants tended to perceive motivational climate as more task-involving than ego-involving. The absence of individual positive feedback, new exercises and mutual aid were also highlighted.

There is a large literature base within the field of sport psychology that provides tremendous direction to coaches and parents on how to structure youth sport so that young athletes develop sport skills and concurrently reap psychological benefits from their sport participation. Much of this research has employed Nicholls’ Achievement Goal Perspective Theory and a Caring Framework to (a) identity the processes children undergo as their cognitive development matures across the elementary years, allowing them to accurately judge their ability by adolescence, (b) formulate their personal definitions of success in sport (develop their goal orientations), and (c) note features of the team and overall sport climate created by coaches and parents. Of particular importance is athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate prevailing on their teams. Athletes can perceive a caring and task-involving climate where coaches reward effort, improvement, and cooperation among teammates, make everyone feel they play an important role on the team, and treat mistakes as part of the learning process. In contrast, athletes can also perceive an ego-involving climate where the coach rewards ability and performance outcome, fosters rivalry among teammates, punishes mistakes, and gives most of the recognition to a few “stars.” When athletes perceive a caring and task-involving climate on their teams, they are more likely to have fun, exert high effort, experience intrinsic motivation, have better interpersonal relationships with coaches and athletes, display better sportsperson-like values and behaviors, have better psychological well-being, and even perform better. In contrast, when athletes perceive an ego-involving climate on their teams they experience fewer adaptive and positive motivational outcomes and greater problematic outcomes (e.g., increased cortisol; greater endorsement of unsportsperson-like behaviors). Research has clearly identified the benefits of coaches and parents creating a caring and task-involving climate for young athletes, yet there are still many ego-involving climates in the youth sport world. A number of organizations are committed to helping coaches and parents transform youth sport culture into a positive arena where young people can develop their athletic skills and have a rewarding sport experience.