Hegemonic Masculinity Moderates the Relationship Between Empathy and Verbal Aggression in Emerging Adult Men.

The aims of the research I embarked on were: (a) to show the preference of terminal values in personal and in social character, as well to determine the level of religious experience—God’s presence and God’s absence, in groups of young people characterized by a high and low level of empathy and (b) to show the relation between terminal values in personal and in social character and religious experience: God’s presence and God’s absence, in groups of young people with a high and low level of empathy. In the research, the following methods were applied: The Scale of Religious Experience by Głaz—in order to define the level of religious experience: God’s presence and God’s absence, and Mehrabian and Epstein’s Questionnaire Measure of Emotional Empathy—in order to define the level of empathy. In order to show the terminal values preference amongst young people, the Rokeach Value Survey was applied. The research was carried out in Kraków amongst 200 university students. The research has shown that students with a high level of empathy reveal a higher level of experience of God’s presence than the people with a low level of it. University students with a high level of empathy amongst terminal values prefer most two values in personal character, that is wisdom and pleasure, and one in social character—family security. Similarly, students with a low level of empathy prefer most also two values in personal character, that is pleasure and freedom, and one in social character—family security. In the group of people with a high level of empathy, it is value in personal character—a sense of accomplishment—that contribute more to explaining the variance of religious experience of God’s presence, and in group of people with a low level of empathy, it is social value—social recognition. Whereas in the group of people with a high level of empathy it is value in social character—equality—that contribute more to explaining the variance of religious experience of God’s absence, and in group of people with a low level of empathy, it is personal value—salvation.

This study examined the moderating role of positive masculinity in the relationship between traditional masculine norms and dating violence among adult men in South Korea. Participants completed the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), the Positive Masculinity Scale (PMS), and the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2). Correlation and moderation analyses indicated that several subfactors of traditional masculinity, including risk-taking, violence, and power over women, were positively associated with dating violence, whereas factors such as emotional control and winning orientation showed negative associations in certain contexts. Importantly, positive masculinity moderated the effects of victory orientation, status-seeking, and power over women on dating violence, such that higher levels of positive masculinity attenuated the risk of violence associated with these traditional norms. These findings suggest that positive masculinity functions as a protective factor by reframing potentially harmful masculine norms into relational responsibility, emotional regulation, and mutual respect. The study highlights the importance of integrating positive masculinity into intervention and prevention programs aimed at reducing gender-based violence in the Korean cultural context, where patriarchal structures remain deeply embedded.

This article describes two studies involving a questionnaire asking about the circumstances, antecedents, and consequences of the most recent fight among samples of young men (100 students in Study I; 88 students and 87 unemployed men in Study II). In Study I, the students alos completed a standard aggression questionnaire and one concerning masculine values to assess whether measures of physical aggressiveness were associated with traditional masculine role norms. There was a weak association with physical aggressiveness but not with reported fights. Students with traditionally masculine interests did report more fights. In Study II, both subsamples showed significant correlations between a masculine role subscale involving toughness from this study were primarily assessed in relation to hyphotheses derived from Darwinian sexual selection theory: that fights between young men are likely to arise from threats to personal integrity and status, women, and resoureces; that fights will be more related to social status and be more damageing among the unemployed men than the students. In line with these predictions, insults were a potent cause of fights in both samples, but public humiliation was a more common reason among the unemployed men, Money or property was more often a reason for fighting among the unemployed men also showed higher levels of anger and physical aggression (but not verbal aggression) on a standard aggression questionnaire. Other differences included the location of the fight, but there were no significant differences between the two samples in whether or not a fight had occured in the last 5 years. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Although studies have shown that adherence to traditional masculine norms (i.e., Status, Toughness, Antifemininity) affect men's attitudes toward sexual health, there is little research on how men's adherence to these norms affect them in the context of heterosexual, dyadic relationships. Among 296 young pregnant couples, we investigated the extent to which adherence to traditional masculine norms affected male and female partners' own condom-related beliefs (i.e., condom self-efficacy, positive condom attitudes) and that of their partners. We tested an interdependence model using a dyadic-analytic approach to path analysis. We also tested for differences across gender and race-ethnicity (i.e., African American, Hispanic). Results showed that adherence to the Antifemininity and Toughness masculine norms predicted negative condom-related beliefs, whereas, overall, adherence to the Status norm predicted positive condom-related beliefs. Men's and women's adherence to traditional norms about masculinity were associated with their partner's condom self-efficacy, and moderated associations based on gender and race-ethnicity were detected. In contrast, each dyad member's traditional masculine norms were not associated with his or her partner's positive condom attitudes. Taken together, findings indicated that the roles of traditional masculinity and condom-related beliefs in sexual health should be addressed within the context of relationships and associations between masculine norms and condom-related beliefs are not uniformly negative.

Traditional masculinity norms are generally defined as hegemonic because they contribute to maintaining men’s favorable position in the gender hierarchy. Nevertheless, many observers argue that traditional masculinity norms are fading away under the pressure of feminist movements and are being replaced by more progressive, non-hegemonic masculinity norms. The present research examines men’s perceptions of how traditional masculinity norms are viewed by three reference groups: society as a whole, other men, and women. We assessed these perceptions via two experiments based on the self-presentation paradigm and involving American ( N = 161) or British ( N = 160) men. Participants in both experiments perceived traditional masculinity as being valued by other men but not by society as a whole or by women. We discuss the implications of these findings in the light of current changes in masculinity norms.

When masculinity is threatened, men may overcompensate by conforming to harmful masculine norms. Adherence to certain masculine norms has been linked to rape myths and sexually violent behaviours. This study examined the impact of threatening masculinity and certain traditional masculine norms (i.e. playboy and power over women) on rape myth acceptance (RMA) and sexual narcissism (SN). After completing the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-30, which was presented as a personality test, participants received fabricated feedback about their masculinity and then completed RMA and SN measures. Both the playboy and power over women norms were associated with greater RMA and SN. Endorsement of the playboy norm interacted with masculinity threat on RMA and SN, such that men who adhered more closely to the playboy norm and experienced a masculinity threat endorsed greater RMA and SN. These findings highlight the power of harmful masculine ideologies on the underpinnings of sexual violence. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT False beliefs about rape and stronger sexually narcissistic attitudes are especially likely in men who embrace stereotypical masculine ideologies and have had their masculinity threatened. Recognising and addressing these risk factors within clinical settings may support the development of targeted interventions that challenge harmful gender stereotypes, reduce rape-supportive attitudes and behaviours, and ultimately contribute to the prevention of sexual violence.

Men, particularly those in public safety roles, are more prone to engaging in health-risk behaviors due to societal expectations surrounding masculinity. These norms often discourage help-seeking behaviors and encourage self-reliance, which can lead to poorer health outcomes. Previous research has suggested that social support can mitigate the negative effects of rigid masculinity norms on health behaviors. This study aims to explore the mediating role of social support in the relationship between masculinity norms and health behaviors among male public safety personnel in Kelantan, Malaysia. This cross-sectional study involved 257 male public safety personnel (PSPs) from three government uniformed agencies in Kelantan. Participants were recruited through simple random sampling and completed three validated instruments: the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-30), the Health Behavior Inventory-Short Form (HBI-SF), and the Malay version of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS-M). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess the mediating effect of social support in the relationship between masculinity norms and health behaviors. SEM analysis revealed that social support fully mediates the relationship between masculinity norms and health behaviors among PSPs. A significant negative association was found between masculinity norms and perceived social support (β = − 0.864, p < 0.001), indicating that stronger adherence to traditional masculinity norms is associated with reduced perceptions of social support. Additionally, perceived social support was significantly associated with healthier behaviors (β = − 0.483, p = 0.001). The indirect effect of masculinity norms on health behaviors through social support was also statistically significant (β = 0.418, p = 0.027), highlighting the critical role of social support in mitigating the adverse health impacts of traditional masculinity norms. This study highlights the importance of social support as a mediator in promoting healthier behaviors among men in high-stress occupations such as PSPs. Interventions aimed at addressing harmful masculinity norms and enhancing perceived social support could effectively improve health outcomes in this population. Public health strategies should prioritize modifying rigid masculine expectations and reinforcing supportive networks to encourage positive health behaviors among PSPs.

Endorsement of traditional masculine norms and male alcohol use are identified risk factors for male-to-female intimate partner violence (MFIPV) perpetration, yet their interaction remains unexplored in Australia. This study aimed to estimate the associations between heavy male alcohol use, endorsement of traditional masculine norms and MFIPV perpetration, and test their interaction among Australian men. Cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative data from Wave 1 (2013-2014) of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Male Health (Ten to Men). Participants were 12 284 men who were Australian citizens or permanent residents aged 18 years or older who identified as heterosexual and answered any of the MFIPV items. The primary outcome was lifetime MFIPV perpetration assessed through three items on frightening, physically harming or forcing sex on a partner. Predictors included past-year heavy episodic drinking (HED) and endorsement of masculine norms. Sociodemographics, other drug use, depression, anxiety and sexual performance problems were included as covariates. Multivariable logistic regression models with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to examine associations between sociodemographics, specific masculine norms, HED, total masculinity scores and perpetrating MFIPV. An interaction between HED and masculinity on MFIPV was also tested. Of the 12 284 men (Mage = 38.3 years), 2947 (23.8%, 95% CI = 22.7-25.0) reported lifetime perpetration of MFIPV, with men aged 30-49 years reporting the highest perpetration rate (26.8%, 95% CI = 24.5-29.1). Higher mean scores on playboy, risk-taking, self-reliance, power over women and violence norms were associated with increased odds of reporting MFIPV perpetration, whereas greater scores on emotional control, primacy of work and heterosexual presentation norms appeared protective. Past-year HED [odds ratio (OR) = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.05-1.48] and greater total masculinity scores (OR = 1.03, 95% CI = 1.01-1.04) were both independently associated with statistically significantly higher odds of reporting lifetime MFIPV perpetration. A statistically significant interaction effect revealed higher total masculinity scores were associated with increased odds of MFIPV perpetration among men with past-year HED, after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics and covariates (OR = 1.03, 95% CI = 1.00-1.06, P = 0.035), but not among men who did not engage in HED. Among Australian men, heavy episodic drinking appears to modify the association between traditional norms of masculinity and reporting male-to-female intimate partner violence, with stronger endorsement of traditional masculine norms associated with higher odds of perpetration among men reporting past-year heavy episodic drinking.

Daddy issues: Friends rather than fathers influence adult men's hegemonic masculinity

IntroductionTraditional masculinity norms have been consistently linked to aggression in men, yet relatively few studies have examined how specific masculinity dimensions relate to distinct forms of aggression within structural and social contexts. Drawing on hegemonic masculinity and gender role strain theory, this study conceptualized masculinity as a socially constructed and contextually reinforced set of ideals influencing emotional and behavioral regulation. The aim was to examine how distinct masculinity dimensions relate to multiple aggression domains, while considering educational attainment and geographic setting as contextual factors.MethodsA sample of 229 Swedish men aged 18 to 40 completed the Male Role Norms Inventory–Short Form (MRNI-SF) and the Swedish Universities Scales of Personality (SSP), assessing seven masculinity dimensions and five aggression domains: mistrust, irritability, verbal trait aggression, physical trait aggression, and social desirability. A multivariate general linear model (GLM) was conducted, followed by univariate analyses.ResultsThe multivariate GLM revealed significant multivariate effects for the masculinity dimensions Restrictive Emotionality, Dominance, and Toughness, as well as for Educational Attainment. Univariate analyses showed that Restrictive Emotionality and Dominance predicted higher levels of Mistrust, whereas Dominance and Toughness were associated with higher Physical Trait Aggression. Avoidance of Femininity showed a positive unadjusted association with Verbal Trait Aggression, although this effect did not remain significant after correction. Educational Attainment demonstrated consistent main effects, with lower education associated with higher scores on Mistrust and Physical Trait Aggression. Geographic Setting did not show significant effects.DiscussionThese findings indicate that aggression is shaped by a combination of psychological dispositions and socially reinforced gender expectations, with different masculinity dimensions uniquely associated with specific forms of aggression. The results underscore the importance of structural context, particularly educational environments, in shaping the internalization and behavioral expression of masculine norms. Interventions that promote emotional competence and critical engagement with gender roles, especially within educational settings, may help reduce male aggression and support healthier expressions of masculinity. Future research should adopt intersectional and longitudinal approaches to further clarify how gender, class, and cultural background interact to shape masculinity and its behavioral outcomes.

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is associated with severe comorbidity and impairment. Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a subtype of BDD which has rarely been assessed outside of undergraduate student samples. Further, there are limited data comparing MD to other psychiatric disorders, including BDD. Thus, the aim of the current study is to explore differences in symptom severity and conformity to masculine norms in men diagnosed with BDD or MD. Men from the greater Boston, Massachusetts area completed a one-time assessment, which included clinician-based structured interviews and self-report questionnaires assessing MD symptom severity, BDD symptom severity, and conformity to traditional masculine norms. The sample was N = 30 men (MD: n = 15; BDD: n = 15). Statistically significant medium to large effects emerged with the MD group experiencing greater MD and BDD symptom severity, and positive attitudes towards the use of violence to solve problems. Although not reaching statistical significance, additional medium-to-large effects also emerged with the MD group reporting greater emotional restriction/suppression, heterosexual self-presentation, and desired sexual promiscuity compared to the BDD group. Findings suggest that men diagnosed with MD may experience greater MD/BDD symptom severity and endorsement of some components of ‘traditional’ masculine norms, compared to men diagnosed with BDD. Results may suggest that addressing some forms of rigid masculine norms (e.g., use of violence) in therapy could be useful in treating MD; however, additional research comparing clinical samples of men with MD and BDD are needed to guide the nosology, assessment, and treatment of MD.

This study examined the relationship between the traditional masculine norms ("status," "toughness" and "antifemininity") of 296 ethnically and racially diverse, young men transitioning to fatherhood and substance use (smoking, alcohol, marijuana, hard drugs) and health behaviors (diet, exercise). Participants were recruited from urban obstetric clinics in the Northeast United States. Logistic and multiple regression equations were constructed to examine the relationship between masculine norms and health behaviors. Moderator effects were also examined. Masculine norm "status" was most endorsed and "antifemininity" was least endorsed. African American young men had higher masculine norm scores than Latino and Whites. Different masculine norms were associated with health-promoting and health-undermining behaviors. Different racial groups who had higher scores on some masculine norms were more likely to engage in either health-promoting or health-undermining behaviors when compared with other ethnic groups in this study. These results observed different relationships between the traditional masculine norms measured and the substance use and health behaviors of diverse, young men transitioning to fatherhood. This may have implications for intervention strategies and future research.

Men's mental health is a focus area for improving population health worldwide. Traditional masculine norms among men have been reported to make them more susceptible to mental health issues. This study aims to review existing literature on how traditional masculinity norms influence men's willingness to seek mental health support. This review followed stages of systematic review. The review search was initiated in February 2024. The search process was conducted on electronic databases such as PubMed, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar to identify relevant studies published in English between 2000 and 2024. The search terms included "traditional masculinity norms," "men's mental health," "help-seeking behavior," and "barriers to mental health care." Studies were selected based on their relevance to the topic. The inclusion criteria were studies focusing on adult men and examining the relationship between traditional masculinity norms and mental health help-seeking behaviors. Exclusion criteria included studies focusing on children, adolescents, or women and nonempirical articles. Data extraction covered study details, design, population characteristics, and key findings. This study included 47 relevant studies. Two key themes emerged, namely: masculinity and mental health (impact on mental health); and barriers to seeking help. Traditional masculinity norms significantly deter men from seeking mental health support, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive interventions that address these barriers.

Adolescence is a period in which the frequency of aggressive behavior increases. However, the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and different types of aggression remains unclear. This study explored this relationship among middle school students. It also examined the mediating mechanisms of aggressive cognition and affect, while investigating the gender differences in the relationships among the study variables. A total of 1891 middle school students from Southwest China completed the SES scale, the normative beliefs about aggression questionnaire, the relational aggression behavior questionnaire, and the Chinese version of the Buss and Perry aggression questionnaire. Three main findings were obtained. First, SES showed a significant positive correlation with relational aggression (β = 0.22, p < 0.001) and a negative correlation with verbal aggression (β = -0.10, p < 0.001), but not with physical aggression (β = -0.02, p = 0.44). Second, normative beliefs about aggression mediated the relationships between SES and two types of aggression (physical and relational); anger/hostility mediated the relationships between SES and all types of aggression (verbal, physical, and relational). Finally, among boys, only the direct effect of SES on relational aggression and the mediating effect of normative beliefs about aggression were significant; however, among girls, the result was the same as that of the total sample. The findings provide support for social learning theory and the general aggression model, highlight the important role of SES in adolescent development, and clarify the distinct patterns underlying physical, verbal, and relational aggression. This study provides empirical evidence that may assist parents and that teachers can use to effectively intervene in adolescent aggressive behavior.

Male first responders face high occupational stress and health risks, influenced by structural barriers and masculine norms. This cross-sectional study examined men's health knowledge, perceived barriers to care, traditional masculinity norms, and health behaviors among 102 male first responders. Descriptive statistics were computed, and nonparametric tests and Spearman correlations evaluated associations with key outcomes, including omission of pertinent health information during clinical encounters. Scale reliability was strong (men's health knowledge α = 0.92; barriers α = 0.77; masculinity norms α = 0.78). Mean age was 44.9 years (SD 13.5); mean BMI was 30.8 (SD 5.6, n = 84), with 53.6% classified as obese/severely obese. A total of 22.0% (n = 91) endorsed Yes/Maybe to having omitted pertinent health information from a provider. Men endorsing omission reported higher overall barriers (Mann-Whitney, p = .0268, r = .325), driven by lack of time (pFDR = .0055, r = .453) and limited awareness of services (pFDR = .0467, r = .332). Traditional masculinity norms differed by occupation (Kruskal-Wallis, p = .00211, ε2 = .117), with police scoring higher than firefighters and EMS. Provider satisfaction was inversely associated with barriers (ρ = -.273, pFDR = .0206) and masculinity norms (ρ = -.295, pFDR = .0142). Diet and exercise correlated positively with self-rated health and body image, whereas BMI correlated negatively. Findings support MANifest Health Theory: selective disclosure is shaped by "maintenance friction" (time/awareness barriers) interacting with masculinity-aligned identity needs. Interventions reducing access friction and framing care as readiness maintenance may improve disclosure.