Healing the himalayas: A legal appraisal of the medicinal plant sector for sustainable use

Objectives: Law and policy are critical instruments for enhancing health systems. The development of modern medicine relies heavily on stringent laws and policies. Additionally, the legislative framework for naturopathy and traditional complementary alternative medicines emphasizes the registration of both products and practitioners. This paper aims to examine the legislative regulatory framework governing naturopathic practices and other traditional complementary medicines in the Southern African region. Methods: This study involves a comprehensive review of various health laws and policy documents across Southern African countries. A country-specific analysis is conducted using keywords such as "naturopathic law," "naturopathic medicine practice," "legislation," "traditional medicine act," "alternative medicine act," and "healthcare laws." Results: The findings indicate that Southern African nations have well-established laws pertaining to naturopathy, as well as distinct regulations for traditional medicine. These countries recognize naturopathy and other complementary therapies as part of allied health professions. Moreover, there is a minimum educational requirement for registration as a traditional medicine healer, which applies to alternative complementary medicines. Conclusions: The research reveals that specific laws regulating naturopathic practice exist in Southern African countries. This commentary on the legislative regulatory framework for naturopathic and other traditional complementary medicines aims to inform public health decisions in Africa.

Introduction to the special issue: Saving plants, saving lives: Trade, sustainable harvest and conservation of traditional medicinals in Asia

Abstract:The review aims to summarize the major and dominant natural antioxidants and their resources from medicinal and herbal plants with antiviral, anti-inflammation and antimicrobial activities. For this review manuscript, online databases, including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and Science Direct, were searched for papers published from 1960 to November, 2021. Search terms consisted of “medicinal plants”, “traditional Iranian medicine”, “traditional Persian medicine”, “pharmaceutical properties”, “antioxidant activity”, “antiviral activity”, “anti-inflammation”, “antimicrobial” and “antibacterial activities”. (-)-Epicatechin, Caffeic acid, Gallic acid, Hydroxytyrosol, Kaempferol, and Resveratrol are some of the most important chemical compounds with antioxidant properties. Rosmarinic acid, Caffeic acid, Carnosol, P-Coumaric acid, Carnosic acid, Luteolin, Apigenin, and Kaempferol are the major chemical compounds with antiviral properties. Curcumin, Colchicine, Resveratrol, Capsaicin, (-)-Epigallocatechin, Quercetin, Myristicin, and Elmicin are the principal chemical compounds with anti-inflammatory properties. Isoeugenol, Coumarin, Piperonal, Scoparone, Spathulenol, D-Limonene, and Myrcene are the principal chemical compounds with antibacterial properties in traditional Iranian medicine. Persian traditional medicine, or Iranian traditional medicine, is one of the main ancient forms of traditional medicine, which has influenced knowledge regarding other medicinal plants in various countries. It has also been considered one of the most well-known traditional and holistic systems of medicine.

Forest certification is an efficient tool for the utilization of important and economically viable forest products and linking them to sustainable forest management practices ensuring their sustainable utilization. It includes social, economic, and environmental facets, thereby helping reduce the anthropogenic pressures on forest-based resources and to maintain forest ecosystem services. The western Himalayas provides many non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that are utilized by local people providing various livelihood opportunities to native Himalayan communities. Rhododendron species with bright red-pinkish flowers, belonging to genera of the Ericaceae family, found at an altitude of 1500–3000 m in the Himalayan region, is one such economically viable NTFP in the Himalayas which is harvested extensively for its varied medicinal and economic benefits. As the current trends in forest certification are gaining increasing momentum with positive impacts on people, attention to supply chains (timber and non-wood products) and ecosystem services is rising globally; our study considers the need for forest certification for the harvest of Rhododendrons in the western Himalayas. The study explores Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification, which is globally one of the leading forest certification schemes, and its provisions for the Rhododendron NTFP harvest, as the scheme can be used as an efficient mechanism for encouraging sustainable use of the harvest. Certification of the Rhododendron harvest will help in adopting improved harvesting practices, as well as providing support to local communities, without influencing the health of forest-based resources in the long term. The findings of the research are discussed with respect to various benefits and challenges for NTFP certification in the study area.

Background: Africa’s healthcare systems are inherently pluralistic, with Traditional and Complementary Medicine (TCAM) playing a central role in public health. However, despite constitutional recognition of indigenous healing systems in countries such as Ghana and The Gambia, regulatory frameworks remain narrow, outdated, or entirely absent—failing to reflect the evolving role of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) modalities such as naturopathy, homeopathy, and Ayurveda. Aim of the Study: This study aims to examine the constitutional and legal foundations of TCAM in Ghana and The Gambia, identify existing regulatory gaps, and propose a harmonized and inclusive legislative framework that ensures professional recognition and governance autonomy for both traditional and CAM practitioners. Methodology and Methods: This study employed a doctrinal and comparative legal research approach. It involved critical analysis of key constitutional provisions, including Articles 11(3) and 26(2) of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana and Section 7 of the 1997 Constitution of The Gambia. Relevant statutory instruments and policy documents were also examined, such as Ghana’s Traditional Medicine Practice Act 575 and The Gambia’s Draft Traditional Health Practitioners Bill, 2025. Additionally, international frameworks—particularly the WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2014–2023—and national policy drafts like The Gambia’s 2020 Draft Constitution were reviewed to contextualize the legal positioning of traditional medicine within broader global and regional governance structures. Results and Findings: The study found that both Ghana and The Gambia have constitutional backing for traditional medicine, yet existing laws—such as Ghana’s Traditional Medicine Practice Act (Act 575)—are limited in scope, excluding CAM systems that are increasingly relevant. The Gambia lacks a comprehensive TCAM statute entirely. The findings support the need for a dual regulatory mechanism that separates but equally legitimizes traditional and CAM practitioners. Furthermore, the study advocates for autonomous TCAM governance structures composed exclusively of TCAM stakeholders. Conclusion and Recommendations: The integration of TCAM through constitutional and legislative reform is both a legal imperative and a public health necessity. The study concludes that renaming existing legislation to explicitly include complementary medicine, developing dual licensure pathways, and institutionalizing TCAM-led governance bodies are critical for regulatory legitimacy. It is recommended that Ghana and The Gambia adopt a unified 'Traditional and Complementary Medicine Bill' aligned with WHO and indigenous rights frameworks to ensure cultural inclusion, healthcare equity, and legal sustainability across African health systems.

See related article, pages 1973–1979. The lack of effective and widely applicable pharmacological treatments for ischemic stroke patients may explain a growing interest in traditional medicines, for which extensive observational and anecdotal experience has accumulated over the past thousand years. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as “health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being”.1 Unlike Western medicine, which focuses on disease, traditional medicine takes the approach that the body provides external clues to an internal imbalance that can be addressed by interventions such as herbs and acupuncture (holistic treatment approach).2 According to a 2003 WHO report,1 traditional medicine is very popular in all developing countries, and its use is rapidly increasing in industrialized countries. For example, traditional herbal preparations account for 30% to 50% of the total medicinal consumption in China. In Europe, North America and other industrialized regions, over 50% of the population have used traditional medicine at least once. The global market for herbal medicines currently stands at over US $60 billion annually and is growing steadily.1 In recent years, several reviews have been published on the effect and potential benefits of traditional Eastern medicine in stroke.3–7 It has been suggested that some herbal medicines, or their products, may improve microcirculation in the brain,4,8 protect against ischemic reperfusion injury,8,9 possess neuroprotective properties3,4 and inhibit apoptosis,10 thus justifying their use in ischemic stroke patients. However, unlike industrially manufactured pharmacological drugs used in Western medicine, the active (potent) components of herbal medicines often have not been specified and measured precisely, although there have been recent attempts to regulate dosages and use of …

A global indicator of utilized wildlife populations: Regional trends and the impact of management

SummaryTo achieve the challenging goals of minimizing loss of species and achieving sustainable use of biodiversity, conservation prioritization merits urgent research attention. The present study identifies the priority of conservation for the medicinal flora of the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) region, a Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. A total of 881 medicinal plant species were scored based on key ecological (endemism, threat status) and socioeconomic (use value, mode of harvesting) criteria, and 50 of these are prioritized for conservation; most of these are narrow endemics. Worryingly, all of the 50 prioritized species are currently recognized under different International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources threat categories, are highly prized for their use in traditional medicine in the region and are precious sustainable bioresources for the herbal industry. Most of these prioritized species are being harvested illegally. This integrated ecological and socioeconomic study has immediate implications for evidence-based and target-orientated conservation policy and practice in this Himalayan region.

Human beings use plants for a multitude of purposes, of which, a globally prominent one is for their medicinal values. Medicinal plants serve as a major source of income for high-altitude inhabitants in the Himalayas, particularly in countries like India, Nepal, and Bhutan. However, people here harvest huge volumes of medicinal plants indiscriminately, risking their sustainability and causing anthropogenic threats. The global market demands for Uttarakhand’s medicinal and aromatic plants are high, and several of these plants are exclusively found in Himalayan states. Himalayan states have a variety of agro-geo-climatic conditions that are ideal for medicinal and aromatic plants. Uttarakhand, being home to a diverse range of wildlife, as well as fragrant plants, has subtropical to tropical soils and agro-climatic conditions. The Alpine is a biodiversity hotspot with a diverse assortment of wild animals. But as a result of the low agricultural production, there is a lack of industrial growth leading to underdevelopment and poverty in such areas. Consequently, Himalayan inhabitants travel to the plains to take advantage of biodiversity to improve their lifestyle and socioeconomic status.

Medicinal and aromatic plants' management raises increasingly important issues of sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity conservation, economic growth, social inclusiveness and rural development. This paper examines the genesis and development of the medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) sector in Albania since 1945. This sector is of national importance and steered by a growing international market. The sustainable management of MAPs is a central issue in both practical and analytical terms. We develop a longitudinal analysis combining the use of documents and archives, statistical and operational data and field studies with an analytical focus rooted in institutional analysis development (IAD) and global value-chain analysis (GVC). We describe the changing system of rules alongside two historical dystopias: total communist state control versus an unregulated (anarchical) market. The paper explains the complexity of the non-sustainable and non-optimum management of MAPs in Albania and identifies major limiting factors in both dystopias. Attempts to establish territory-based resource management and a relevant management community are thwarted by lock-in along the value chain under export-driven monopolist/monopsony control, conflicting institutional interplays over access to the resource and inadequate knowledge on sustainable MAP use. Overcoming these shortcomings requires tackling the diversity of local situations and plant ecology. The paper highlights the need for a renewed form of community engagement in natural resource governance within global value chains.

South Asia is home to many rich, traditional systems of medicine (TSM). Ayurvedic system dates back to 5000 B.C. Along with the Unani, Siddha and Tibetan systems, these TSMs remain important source of everyday health and livelihood for tens of millions of people. Himalayan sage-scholars of Traditional Medicine have said “Nanaushadhi Bhootam Jagat Kinchit” i.e. 'there is no plant in the world, which does not have medicinal properties.' The ancient scholars are estimated to know the medicinal properties of hundreds of species of plants. It is therefore, no exaggeration to say that the uses of plants for human health are probably as old as human beings themselves. Even so, the recent dramatic increase in sales of herbal products in global markets underscores the growing popularity of herbal therapies. Medicinal plants are accessible, affordable and culturally appropriate sources of primary health care for more than 80% of Asia’s population (WHO). Poor and marginalized, who cannot afford or access formal health care systems, are especially dependent on these culturally familiar, technically simple, financially affordable and generally effective traditional medicines. As such, there is widespread interest in promoting traditional health systems to meet primary health care needs. This is especially true in South Asia, as prices of modern medicines spiral and governments find it increasingly difficult to meet the cost of pharmaceutical-based health care. The pharmaceutical industry is both large and highly successful. Sales of plant derived drugs are expected to reach $30 billion worldwide in 2002. At present about 50% of the total plant-derived drug sales come from single entities, while the remaining 50% come from herbal remedies. The Eastern Region of India comprising of eastern UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh has a large number of valuable medicinal plants naturally growing mostly in fragile ecosystems that are predominantly inhabited by rural poor and indigenous communities. The sustainable management of these traditionally used plants not only help conserve nationally and globally important biodiversity but also provide critical resources to sustain livelihoods. Selection of medicinal plant species for cultivation is an initial important step for the development of the medicinal plants sector. Economic feasibility is the major rationale for a decision to bring medicinal plant species into cultivation. Apart from the priority species selected by the Planning Commission and the NMPB, the rare species banned for collection from the wild should also be taken on a priority basis for cultivation because a majority of such species are very expensive, have high demand and low supply. Cultivation may not be economical if a medicinal plant species is abundant in the wild and easily collected. Therefore, the less abundant species in the wild should be promoted for the large-scale cultivation. Farming of any medicinal plant species should be brought into practice only after the reliable cultivation technology of the concerned species is available. A large variation in climatic and soil conditions in eastern India sustain a variety of medicinal plant species, which may be cultivated according to their niche. The medicinal plants sector can be improved if the agricultural support agencies would come forward to help strengthen the medicinal plants growers and if research institutions would help the plant growers by improving their basic knowledge about cultivation practices. Awareness and interest of farmers, supportive government policies, assured markets, profitable price levels, access to simple and appropriate agro-techniques, and availability of trained manpower are some of the key factors for successful medicinal plants cultivation.

Over hunting and over trade in wildlife and its products are big challenges to biodiversity conservation throughout the world. Globally, the trade in tiger bone and rhinoceros horn, illegal trade in live wildlife in Southeast Asia, trade in wildlife products in Russian Far East and across Sino Russia border, tropical bush meat hunting and trade, and illegal trade in wildlife products in Himalayan region, are increasingly threatening wildlife resources in the world. Advocating hunting sustainability is one of the approaches to resolving the problems of over hunting and over trade. In models for hunting sustainability, “the model of game refugia” and “the spatial control approach” which suggest to set aside reserves in hunted areas, will have good prospects in conservation practice. The future directions in conservation related to game hunting and wildlife trade include: to understand poaching dynamics and characteristic and its effects on populations of endangered animals, to harmonize relationship between traditional medicine and wildlife conservation, to control illegal hunting and illegal trade in wildlife and its products across border between countries and to apply hunting sustainability models in conservation practice. The over hunting and over trade in wildlife and its products have seriously threatened China′s biodiversity and its sustainable use, but little information related is available. It is needed for establishing the working agency for monitoring wildlife hunting and wildlife trade, and improving legislation and its enforcement for conservation related and management of nature reserves, and strengthening research on wildlife hunting and wildlife trade in China.

An ethnobotanical study was conducted from March, 2011 to October, 2012 to enumerate the diversity of traditionally used threatened medicinal plants in biodiversity rich temperate Himalayan ranges of Bandipora district, Kashmir, India. Ethnomedicinal data was gathered using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and walk-in-the-woods with local knowledgeable elders, tribals (Gujjars and Bakkerwals) and Bhoeris (traditional practitioners). Results revealed that 23 threatened plant species belonging to 22 genera and 15 different families were traditionally used for curing various health disorders. Taxus wallichiana was a lone gymnosperm while all others were angiosperms. Majority of the species were perennial herbs but reports of biennial herbs and perennial trees were not uncommon. The highest number of medicinal plants were recorded in two families viz. Asteraceae (4 species, 17.39%) and Liliaceae (3 species, 13.04%). The shrinking population of these plants on account of very high demand for medicinal purposes is a matter of great concern as these plants are the backbone of our traditional medicinal system with a large population still depending on traditional medicine. Therefore, the need to conserve these plants is of utmost importance because if necessary conservation measures are not taken at the earliest, the day will not be far away when these God gifted resources will completely deplete from their natural habitats. Key words: Threatened plants, ethnobotany, Bandipora, tribals, Kashmir Himalaya.

Optimization of land use structure to balance economic benefits and ecosystem services under uncertainties: A case study in Wuhan, China

Plants have been used in traditional medicine systems worldwide, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Unani medicine. In India, plants have been utilized for medicinal purposes for centuries and form an integral part of Ayurvedic practices. The Himalayan region is recognized for its traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, with local communities such as the Jaunsari, Tharu, Raji, Buksa, and Bhotia tribes relying on these plants for their healthcare needs. The present review aims to provide an updated and comprehensive account of the phytochemical composition, traditional uses, and pharmacological applications of Asparagus curillus . Relevant information was gathered from various sources, including online scientific databases such as Scopus and PubMed, as well as several books, resulting in a total of 42 references. A. curillus is an indigenous medicinal plant of the Uttarakhand Himalaya, traditionally used, mainly its roots, for the treatment of various ailments. The literature review revealed that the plant contains a diverse range of bioactive compounds, including glycosides, steroids, and saponins. Furthermore, it has been widely used by local communities for treating respiratory, digestive, reproductive, urinary, and skin disorders. This review highlights the important medicinal uses of A. curillus in ethnomedicinal practices and suggests its potential as a source of novel drugs and natural remedies. Further research is needed to explore its pharmacological activities and clinical efficacy in treating various diseases.