Growth and Yield of Paddy Rice Cultivation by Applying the Whole Amount of Fertilizer as Basal Dressing in the Nursery Box and Planting Sparsely: From Paddy Rice Cultivation Examination in Rice and Wheat Double Cropping Area of North Kanto District

The global efforts on reducing methane (CH4) emissions was emphasized in COP 28 and the potential for improved estimation became feasible through bottom-up data acquisition with advanced remote sensing technology. The objectives of this study were to extract summer rice and winter crop cultivation areas based on satellite images and to incorporate into estimating CH4 emissions in South Korea for the year 2020. Satellite images of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 were acquired from European Space Agency. Rice paddy was classified with backscattering coefficient from Sentinel-1 images, while the normalized difference vegetation index from Sentinel-2 images was used to identify winter cropping field. The equation of IPCC guidelines was used to estimate CH4 emissions by incorporating the areas of rice paddy and winter crop extracted with the respective satellite image. National farming statistics were used to determine the scaling factors for paddy organic matter and water management practices. The estimated areas for rice paddy and winter crop cultivation were 712,237 ha and 117,840 ha, respectively. The rice paddy areas were primarily concentrated in the western regions of the Korean peninsula, whereas winter crop cultivation was predominantly found in southern part of the country. The total amount of CH4 emissions was 6272 Gg CO2 eq./yr when considering rice straw and winter cropping practices into estimation (modified Tier 2 method). This represents a 7% increase compared to the method that considered solely the rice straw incorporation (current Tier 2 method). The CH4 emissions per unit area were also 8.82 tons CO2 eq./ha/yr with the modified Tier 2 method, indicating a 10% greater compared to the current Tier 2 method. Substantial CH4 emissions were primarily concentrated in western regions where extensive rice paddy cultivation occurs, while greater CH4 emissions per unit area were predominantly found in southern regions with substantial winter crop cultivation. The study findings hold importance for improving the accuracy of CH4 emissions estimation by employing bottom-up approach that utilizes satellite imagery to assess rice paddy and winter cropping areas. Further study would be needed to incorporate field-based data on rice crop management practices, such as rice straw and water management, to further refine CH4 emission estimation method.

In order to evaluate the effect of different nitrogen application methods on wheat canopy, leaf chlorophyll, and yield, a field experiment with a split plot arrangement in complete randomized block design with four replicates was conducted in 2006. Basal dressing in three levels (with no basal dressing, strip and distributing nitrogen fertilizer) as main plot and top dressing in six levels (distributing on tillering, two distributing on tillering and before spike appearance, water soluble fertilizing with herbicide application before spike appearance, two water soluble fertilizing on tillering and before spike appearance, two application: one distributing on tillering and one water soluble fertilizing before spike appearance and finally, three water soluble fertilizing on tillering, before spike appearance and milking period) as subplot were applied. The amount of fertilizer in strip application was 2/3 of distributing method. In the compartmented application, the amount of applied fertilizer was two third of distributing fertilizer method. Leaf area index for no basal nitrogen fertilizer application treatment was 21% lower than the mean of LAI for band and broadcasting application treatments. Band and broadcasting application of basal nitrogen fertilizer caused 454 and 61.6% increase in leaf area per plant in comparison with no basal nitrogen treatment respectively. Light transition from canopy for no basal nitrogen fertilizer treatment was 81.1% higher than the mean of light transition for band and broadcasting nitrogen application treatment. Although there was not significant differences between band and broadcasting application method, the lowest and the highest leaf chlorophyll was belong to no basal nitrogen and broadcasting treatment respectively. Based on leaf chlorophyll, split or integrated treatments of top dressing application of nitrogen fertilizer in spite of reducation of nitrogen application, because of optimization, did not have significant difference with conventional treatment (wholly distributing of top dressing nitrogen fertilizer on tillering). Keywords: Wheat, Nitrogen fertilizer, Basal dressing, Top dressing, Leaf chlorophyll

آزمایش ارزیابی تأثیر روش‌های کاربرد کود نیتروژن بر صفات مورفولوژیک و تولید گندم در شرایط دیم به صورت کرتهای خرد شده در قالب طرح بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی با 4 تکرار طی سال زراعی 86-1385 در شهرستان خرم‌آباد اجرا شد. کود پایه نیتروژن در سه سطح (بدون کود پایه، کاربرد نواری و پخش سراسری) کرت اصلی و کود سرک در شش سطح (1- تیمار رایج پخش سطحی یک‌ مرحله‌ای در زمان پنجه‌زنی 2- پخش سطحی دو ‌مرحله‌ای در مجموع به میزان دوسوم تیمار رایج در زمان پنجه‌زنی و قبل از ظهور سنبله 3- محلول‌پاشی دو مرحله‌ای همراه علف‌کش‌ها در مرحله پنجه‌زنی و قبل از ظهور سنبله 4- محلول‌پاشی دو مرحله‌ای در زمان پنجه‌زنی و قبل از ظهور سنبله 5- پخش سطحی در مرحله پنجه‌زنی به میزان دوسوم تیمار رایج به همراه محلول‌پاشی پیش از ظهور سنبله و 6- محلول‌پاشی سه‌مرحله‌ای در زمان‌های پنجه‌زنی، قبل از ظهور سنبله و شیری بودن دانه) کرت فرعی آزمایش را تشکیل ‌دادند. یک‌سوم مقدار کود نیتروژن توصیه شده بر اساس آزمون خاک، به کود پایه اختصاص داده شد. مقدار مصرف کود نیتروژن در روش کاربرد نواری کود پایه دوسوم مقدار کود مصرفی در روش پخش سراسری بود. وزن خشک برگ گندم در واحد سطح برای تیمارهای کاربرد نواری و پخش سطحی کود پایه نیتروژن به طور متوسط 18 درصد بیشتر از تیمار بدون کود پایه نیتروزن بود. تأثیر تیمار کود پایه نیتروژن بر عملکرد بیولوژیک و عملکرد دانه گندم معنی‌دار نبود. درصد پروتئین دانه برای تیمارهای کاربرد نواری و پخش سراسری کود پایه نیتروژن حدود 15 درصد بیشتر از تیمار فاقد کود پایه نیتروژن بود. وزن هزار دانه گندم برای تیمار بدون کود پایه نیتروژن برابر 23/39 گرم بود که به طور معنی‌داری بیشتر از وزن هزار دانه برای تیمارهای کاربرد نواری و پخش سراسری کود پایه نیتروژن بود. در مورد عدم تأثیرپذیری عملکرد بیولوژیک و عملکرد دانه گندم از کود پایه نیتروژن به نظر می‌رسد این موضوع به وقوع بارش تگرگ شدید در اواخر اردیبهشت مربوط بود. داده‌های روند رشد، وزن برگ، زیست‌توده کل و کلروفیل برگ، همگی گویای تأثیر مثبت کود پایه نیتروژن بر شاخص‌های رشد گندم بود. تگرگ شدید در اواخر اردیبهشت سبب ورس شدید گندم شد. در مورد تیمارهایی که کود نیتروژن بیشتری دریافت کرده بودند، پدیده ورس بیشتر اتفاق افتاد. به نظر می‌رسد ورس مانع بهره‌گیری گندم از کود پایه نیتروژن شد.

Since crop rotation between paddy rice and upland crops is widely conducted in Japan and other Asian countries, the effect of crop rotation on greenhouse gas emission should be clarified. In this study, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes were simultaneously measured for two years from 2004 to 2005 in a paddy rice field with three different cultivation histories, i.e. consecutive paddy rice cultivation (PR), single cropping of upland rice (UR), and double cropping of soybean and wheat (SW) in the preceding two years from 2002 to 2003. In 2004, the cumulative CH4 emissions in the UR and SW plots were 511 and 2817 g CH4 m−2 y−1, which were 8 and 46%, respectively, of that in the PR plots (6092 g CH4 m−2 y−1). In 2005, the cumulative CH4 emissions in the UR and SW plots were 5123 and 1331 g CH4 m−2 y−1, which were 87 and 23%, respectively, of that in the PR plots (5893 g CH4 m−2 y−1), although the differences were not statistically significant. The soil reduction/oxidation potential (Eh) in the UR plots was higher than that in the PR plots in 2004. However, no distinctive differences in soil Eh among the three cropping systems were found in 2005. In the spring of 2004, the soil iron (Fe) content determined by extraction with dithionite-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) solution was higher in the UR plots than in the PR and SW plots. However, no significant differences in Fe content among the three cropping systems were found in the spring of 2002 and 2005. The application of a relatively small amount of residue from the upland rice (c. 30% of that from the paddy rice) and the removal of all aboveground crop residues of soybean and wheat before paddy rice cultivation in 2004 could have contributed significantly to the low CH4 emissions in the UR and SW plots. In addition, change in the form of soil Fe during the preceding periods with upland crop cultivation may also have been related to the decreases in CH4 emission. The cumulative N2O emissions ranged from 39 to 99 mg N m−2 y−1, and showed no significant difference among the three cropping systems in 2004 and 2005. These results indicate that the combined CH4 and N2O emission from paddy soil is reduced by the introduction of the preceding upland crop cultivation when crop residue from the previous upland crop is small or removed before paddy rice cultivation, although this effect was expected only for one year just after the land use change from upland crop cultivation to paddy rice cultivation.

Soil moisture is critical to the growth and yield-contributing character traits of rice. However, few studies have yet to outline the effects of soil texture on irrigated paddy rice cultivation under diverse conservation techniques. In this regard, an experiment was conducted at the Field Irrigation Laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University to investigate the water productivity and yield-contributing characteristics of paddy rice (Oryza sativa L.; variety: BRRI dhan 28) during Boro season for two years with two different soil textures (silt loam, 2019 and loam, 2020) and three different irrigation techniques, namely, Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD), Raised Bed (RB) and the conventional Continuous Flooding (CF). It was observed that seepage in CF treatment was higher than that of AWD and RB. Highest grain yield (6.70±0.04 t/ha) was found for 15 cm AWD treatment (irrigation applied when water level reached 15 cm below ground surface) for silt loam and the same for loam soil was 6.53±0.50 t/ha under 10 cm AWD treatment. CF method of irrigation yielded grain lowest for both silt loam (5.47±0.05) t/ha and loam (5.28±0.19) t/ha soil. For both soil textures, CF treatment required more water than conservation treatments and resulted in lower water productivity. Again, for both the types of soil, AWD performed comparatively better than the CF, especially 15 cm AWD for silt loam soil and 10 cm AWD for loam soil because it required minimum water for paddy rice cultivation and its water productivity was maximum for the same rice production. Therefore, adopting these water-conserving methods would have a considerable implication for water-scarce agricultural regions.

In order to evaluate the effect of different nitrogen application methods on wheat canopy, leaf chlorophyll, and yield, a field experiment with a split plot arrangement in complete randomized block design with four replicates was conducted in 2006. Basal dressing in three levels (with no basal dressing, strip and distributing nitrogen fertilizer) as main plot and top dressing in six levels (distributing on tillering, two distributing on tillering and before spike appearance, water soluble fertilizing with herbicide application before spike appearance, two water soluble fertilizing on tillering and before spike appearance, two application: one distributing on tillering and one water soluble fertilizing before spike appearance and finally, three water soluble fertilizing on tillering, before spike appearance and milking period) as subplot were applied. The amount of fertilizer in strip application was 2/3 of distributing method. In the compartmented application, the amount of applied fertilizer was two third of distributing fertilizer method. Leaf area index for no basal nitrogen fertilizer application treatment was 21% lower than the mean of LAI for band and broadcasting application treatments. Band and broadcasting application of basal nitrogen fertilizer caused 454 and 61.6% increase in leaf area per plant in comparison with no basal nitrogen treatment respectively. Light transition from canopy for no basal nitrogen fertilizer treatment was 81.1% higher than the mean of light transition for band and broadcasting nitrogen application treatment. Although there was not significant differences between band and broadcasting application method, the lowest and the highest leaf chlorophyll was belong to no basal nitrogen and broadcasting treatment respectively. Based on leaf chlorophyll, split or integrated treatments of top dressing application of nitrogen fertilizer in spite of reducation of nitrogen application, because of optimization, did not have significant difference with conventional treatment (wholly distributing of top dressing nitrogen fertilizer on tillering). Keywords: Wheat, Nitrogen fertilizer, Basal dressing, Top dressing, Leaf chlorophyll

Large areas of European peatlands have been drained for agriculture, but drained organic soils are a strong source of carbon dioxide (CO2). Reinstalling high water tables would inhibit further peat oxidation and reduce CO2 and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, but most cash crops do not grow in waterlogged conditions. Paddy rice cultivation could offer a new option for continuing the agricultural use of these soils under wet conditions. However, paddy rice cultivation is known to be a strong source of methane (CH4), which might cancel out the potential climate benefit from reduced CO2 and N2O emissions. The main aim of this study was, therefore, to quantify for the first time the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance of paddy rice grown on organic soil in the temperate climate zone of the Swiss Plateau.In an outdoor mesocosm experiment, we measured the greenhouse gases CO2, CH4, and N2O with manual chambers on a weekly to biweekly interval for one year. During the experiment, rice (Oryza sativa L.) was cultivated under flooded conditions with mid-season drainage on organic soil. As a reference treatment, ley was grown on drained organic soil (water table -100 cm).Preliminary results from the growing season (April - October) including planting and harvest suggest that the overall GHG balance of paddy rice cultivation on organic soil (9.3 ± 1.9 t CO2 eq. ha-1 including harvest exports) was significantly lower than of ley grown on drained organic soil (27.9 ± 5.0 t CO2 eq. ha-1 including harvest exports). This difference was mainly attributed to the strong reduction in ecosystem respiration under flooded conditions compared to ley on drained organic soil. Paddy rice cultivation was a source of methane (49.2 ± 19.7 kg CH4 ha-1), while the drained organic soil covered with ley was a CH4 sink (-0.6 ± 0.1 kg CH4 ha-1). The flooded conditions in the paddy rice mesocosms significantly lowered N2O emissions (0.7 ± 0.3 kg N2O ha-1) compared to drained grassland (4.7 ± 3.1 kg N2O ha-1). N2O and CH4 accounted for 16.0 ± 6.8 % of the total GHG balance in the rice on organic soil treatment, whereas it was only 4.9 ± 2.6 % in the ley on drained organic soil.Together, we show that paddy rice cultivation on organic soil is a valid alternative to upland agriculture in the temperate zone and offers significant GHG emission reduction potentials.

Large areas of temperate peatlands are drained for agriculture and are strong sources of greenhouse gases (GHG). Paddy rice cultivation as a new cropping system in the cool temperate climate could offer an opportunity for continuing food production on these organic soils, possibly reducing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions by rewetting. However, methane (CH 4 ) from paddy rice cultivation might impair the potential climate benefits. Here, the GHG fluxes of CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O of paddy rice grown on organic soil with and without amended mineral cover, as well as in ley cultivated on drained organic soil as a reference, were quantified in an outdoor mesocosm experiment in Switzerland (cool temperate climate). Measurements were conducted with manual chambers for one year. Compared to ley under drained management, paddy rice cultivation reduced the net GHG balance by 36.1 %, from 32.7 (7.0) to 20.9 (2.7) t CO 2 eq ha −1 yr −1 . The GHG balance was dominated by CO 2 whereas CH 4 accounted for 8 % (54.3 (26.2) kg CH 4 ha −1 yr −1 ). Most CO 2 emissions occurred during the drained fallow period (mid-September–April). N 2 O emissions (0.9 (0.4) kg N 2 O-N ha −1 yr −1 ) were reduced by 83.9 % with paddy rice. Adding an amended mineral cover to organic soil slightly reduced the net GHG balance further, but not significantly. Multi-year studies on field-scale are required to generalize this study’s findings derived from a one-year mesocosm experiment. The results point towards paddy rice cultivation being a promising alternative to drained agriculture on temperate organic soils while maintaining food production and mitigating GHG emissions. • Paddy rice on temperate organic soil has the potential to lower greenhouse gas emissions. • Paddy rice improved the greenhouse gas balance by 36 % compared to drained management. • Methane emissions played a minor role in rice compared to carbon dioxide emissions. • Compared to drained management, paddy rice reduced nitrous oxide emissions by 84 %.

In Southeast Asia, economic and population growth are expected in the near future. Rapid change is anticipated especially in the Lao PDR. Concern has been expressed that population growth will lead to an increased demand for food and economic growth to changes in the use of land. For food production to keep pace with the growth of population, it is very important to understand decision-making in rice paddy cultivation in urbanizing areas; for this reason, this study with the SEM model was conducted. The original data were collected by a questionnaire survey in some Lao villages; the survey included questions on various conditions, such as the availability of water in the dry season (irrigation), the access to a city, and job opportunities other than farming. The findings of the study demonstrate that the planting of a second rice crop was related to such factors as the productivity of rain-fed rice and cash crops and, most importantly, job opportunities other than farming.

On the sustainability of paddy rice cultivation in the Paraíba do Sul river basin (Brazil) under a changing climate

Relation between protein content in rice crops and fertilizer amount as well as rice stump density is clarified with a multi-spectral camera data mounted on a radio-wave controlled helicopter. Estimation of protein content in rice crop and total nitrogen content in rice leaves through regression analysis with Normalized Difference Vegetation Index: NDVI derived from camera mounted radio-controlled helicopter is already proposed. Through experiments at rice paddy fields which is situated at Saga Prefectural Research Institute of Agriculture: SPRIA in Saga city, Japan, it is found that total nitrogen content in rice leaves is linearly proportional to fertilizer amount and NDVI. Also, it is found that protein content in rice crops is positively proportional to fertilizer amount for lower fertilizer amount while protein content in rice crop is negatively proportional to fertilizer amount for relatively high fertilizer amount.

The implementation of extension activities is confronted with a multitude of challenges and difficulties. It is therefore imperative for extension workers to possess a comprehensive understanding of the most appropriate and productive extension methods in the context of agricultural extension activities. The objective of this study was to ascertain the efficacy of group extension methods in paddy rice cultivation and to elucidate the relationship between the two. The study population consisted of all rice paddy farmers in Lebo Jaya Village, Konda Subdistrict, with a total of 104 farmers. The sample size was determined using the Slovin formula, with a degree of error or margin of error of 15%, resulting in a research sample of 31 respondents. The sampling technique employed was simple random sampling. The data were collected via survey, interview, and document analysis, using various media in the form of questionnaires. The research employed a quantitative approach. The research variables were twofold, comprising group extension methods and paddy rice cultivation activities. The data were subjected to quantitative descriptive analysis, employing the class interval formula and the Spearman rank correlation equation. The findings indicated that the implementation of group extension methods in paddy rice cultivation in Lebo Jaya Village was classified as "good." The aforementioned activities, which pertain to paddy rice cultivation specifically, land preparation, seed selection, irrigation, fertilization, pest and disease control have been classified as "good." The level of application of group counseling methods is found to be significantly and positively related to the cultivation of wet rice in Lebo Jaya Village. The correlation value is 0.542, and the significance of 0.002 is less than 0.05. The strength of the relationship between group extension methods and paddy rice cultivation activities is moderately strong. This indicates that an improvement in the method of agricultural counseling will result in an improvement in rice paddy farming activities in Lebo Jaya Village, Konda Subdistrict, South Konawe District.

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to investigate effects of silicate fertilizer application on red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) productivity with improving soil chemistry under plastic film house in paddy field. METHODS AND RESULTS: The silicate fertilizer was applied as 0, 100, 200, and 300 kg/10a as basal dressing before transplanting pepper plant seedlings. Cultivar of the pepper plant was Cheon-Ha-Dae-Se. Amounts of inorganic fertilizer applied as N-P 2 O 5 -K 2 O = 19.0-6.4-10.1 kg/10a was estimated depending on soil test values. After applying 50% of nitrogen, 100% of phosphorus, and 60% of potassium fertilizers as basal dressing, the seedlings of pepper plant were transplanted. The rests of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers were applied as side-dressing after the first, second, and fourth harvests of red pepper. When comparing selected chemical properties of soils between before transplanting and after final(the fifth) harvest, soil pH, available P 2 O 5 , and exchangeable Ca

Mapping seasonal rice cropland extent and area in the high cropping intensity environment of Bangladesh using MODIS 500 m data for the year 2010

Soil-based test studying prevailing to so many crops in Vindhyan alluvial plains from 2001 to 2004 has shown result of production on special rice crop (IR-36) by testing leveraging on soil stoichiometric testing and recommended balanced fertilizers and organic matter amelioration by application for the niche area of impact to targeted yield of paddy crop. The results confirm that soil micro-flora and micro-organisms speed up aeration, drainage, and the best crumby structures, resulting in embryonic fertility and support for crop plants' profuse and vigorous growth through the best soil texture under various agro-climatological divisions in particular. Preliminary and secondary data are calculated after administration of research questionnaire, structure, queue, flow and research objectives, first hand data fulfilment through field tour and experimental block designs under study in paddy-based ecosystem of control and treatment blocks. Nutrients and fertilizers are required for specific accelerated productivity of paddy crop by using control and treatment with specific fertilisers, which is organized in the old mathematical model of [CF (%)] and [CS (%)] gradient. Data in relation to studies of nutrient percentage recommended model development through incursion into stoichiometric trends, analysis, models, algorithms, principles/procedures and quantisation. Regression formulae support the experimental design blocks. Studies by experimental design of blocks replication and finding of experimentations on different mathematical models led to outcome of best efficient recommended fertilizers dose to enrich/replenish the gap of inadequate fertilizers to the paddy (rice) crop to touch our targeted yield of rice crops. Analytical trends and comparison experimentation sheet led to the effort for how much quantity fertilizers are actually needed for paddy crop growth by applying mathematical quantization and qualitative. Under experimental controls, originality of this innovative findings, this research supports systems approach for simplicity, spirituality and sustainability. We have used different mathematical models and three methods and comparing it with traditional method to show the better result of yield data of paddy crop.