Groundwater Rise Problem and Risk Evaluation in Major Cities of Arid Lands – Jedddah Case in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Monitoring temporal variations in groundwater levels in urban areas using ground penetrating radar

Groundwater over-exploitation for agricultural crops caused adverse impact on the sustainability of the resources of Rajasthan. Western arid to central semi-arid regions of the state shows a large spital variation in annual rainfall. The study of groundwater elevation zones during pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and post winter irrigation (January to March) seasons shows a steady declining of groundwater level of places such as Osian (1.93 m/year) and Piprali (1.50 m/year) which is attributed to excessive groundwater draft due to irrigation in Rabi season. It has been predicted that most of the tube wells in Osian and Piprali may get dry completely by 2048 and 2068, respectively. However, during the same period Khamnor area shows rise in groundwater level at the rate of 1.19 m/year. This variation in groundwater level is attributed to the nature of different aquifer systems viz. alluvium in Piprali, sandstone in Osian, and gneisses in Khamnor area. Implementation of water harvesting structures shows significant improvement in recharge of groundwater in Osian and Khamnor area underlain by hard rock aquifer system. Geospatial analysis of recharge and draft from groundwater during 2008–2009, 2010–2011, and 2011–2012 shows significant changes due to rise and fall in groundwater levels. Over-exploitation of groundwater has developed a non-equilibrium stage between recharge and irrigation draft. In contrary, a positive impact on groundwater recharge in Khamnor area is evident due to higher rainfall and hard rock aquifer with secondary porosity (joints/fractures). Unless preventive measures are taken, the gap between groundwater recharge and draft will increase many folds in future.

The increasing gap between the supply and demand for water in the Economic and Social Commission of Western Asia (ESCWA) member countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) can be attributed to the limited availability of surface water, mining of fossil groundwater sources, and water pollution mainly of shallow aquifers, deficient institutional structure, poor management processes, and inapt allocation of financial resources. The non-sustainable use of natural water resources to meet the escalating water demand has also contributed to the depletion and deterioration of water quality and quantity. To meet water supply shortages in the domestic sector, water desalination has been entrenched as a viable option for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which includes the following countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The objective of the paper is to investigate the role of water desalination in meeting the water demands in the ESCWA member countries. The significant role of desalination is highlighted with emphasis in evaluating not only its production trends, processes, and costs, but also its capacity in the provision of water demands. Water desalination has become a major and staunch water source for a number of large urban centers. For such countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar and the coastal zone areas of Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia, desalination represents one of the most feasible and strategic alternative options for their current and future domestic water supply requirement. Given the high consumption rate from this source and its high production cost, fundamental efforts must be integrated and invested in both research and development programs to implement comprehensive conservation measures that would lead to a reduction in the consumption rates. Parallel to these achievements, efforts should be directed within the context of integrated management of water resources, to identify alternative potential water resources, to meet future water challenges.

The population in Yogyakarta City, Indonesia has increased since 1970, resulting in high groundwater utilization. This normally results in a decline of groundwater level in shallow aquifer beneath the city. However, expansion of the city and urbanization effects can also have the opposite effect and lead to a rise of groundwater levels due to urban recharge. This study investigates groundwater level changes in Yogyakarta City during a time period of 30 years between 1985 and 2015. Collected data in this research are groundwater level, rainfall, population density, sewer system, and land use. Overlaying various spatial information reveals a pattern of groundwater level rise in some areas of the city by 0–12 m, whilst in other areas a decline of 0–9 m is discovered. Rising groundwater levels are mainly found in areas moderate to high population density where sewer system networks have been installed. The rising of groundwater levels is this expected to be caused by urban recharge and sewers leakage.

Groundwater models can be used for the assessment of the impact of the different cropping pattern andchange in urban area on groundwater resource and modeling is the best tool to optimize the differentcombinations or scenarios and to select the best combination or scenario for management of sustainablegroundwater resources. In this study, three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater model VisualMODFLOW 2.8.1 was used to simulate the groundwater dynamics in Nagarjuna Sagar Right CanalCommand area. The net area irrigated under Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal is 4.75 lakh ha. Calibration andvalidation of the model has been carried out and used to predict the static groundwater storage availabilityin the study area for different cropping pattern scenarios and change in the urban area. The validatedVisual MODFLOW 2.8.1 was used to simulate the groundwater dynamics in the study area for the years2030 and 2040 with different cropping pattern scenarios and change in the urban area. Global climatemodel MarkSim, which is developed by the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) was usedto generate future weather data for the years 2030 and 2040. The impact of change in cropping pattern onstorage of static groundwater resource in the study area for the years 2030 and 2040 was assessed with twoscenarios of change in rice cropped area decreased by 50 per cent and 100 per cent with this cropped areacultivated equally by the ID crops. These results showed that the lesser storage of static groundwaterresources in future lesser. The change in the cropping pattern affects the net recharge of the groundwaterwhich influences the groundwater levels. Increase in paddy area increases the recharge and rise ingroundwater level has been identified. In the study area, cropping pattern could be changed from rice cropto other irrigated dry crops to prevent the increase of groundwater resources which leads the water loggingcondition in the study area. The urbanization is one of the most significant factor considering for assessmentof the response on the groundwater levels and availability of static groundwater resources. The groundwaterrecharge is very less in case of increase in urban area and generates more runoff rather than the intake ofrainfall in the ground surface as having the impervious nature. In view of increase in urban area in thestudy area, the four scenarios are proposed with the combination of 10 per cent and 20 per cent decrease inrecharge and 50 per cent and 100 per cent increase in groundwater draft and simulated the groundwater fluctuations for the years 2030 and 2040. The impact of change in the urban area on storage of availablestatic groundwater resource in the study area for the years 2030 and 2040 was assessed with four scenarioscombination of groundwater recharge and groundwater pumping. The storage of static groundwaterresources would be expected in future lesser than the present storage of static groundwater resources in allscenarios due to increase in urban area as increased in impervious nature of the ground surface. The declinein available static groundwater resources would be expected 6.38 per cent and 7.08 per cent during 2030and 2040 respectively. The rapid expansion in the urban area and their settlements is also one of the reasonsfor the depletion of groundwater resources with low recharge and high groundwater draft.

This paper presents the trend analysis of two climatic variables: annual average rainfall and annual average temperature and fluctuating groundwater levels (GWL) for the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season at ten different stations of Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh, India, using the decadal data ranging from 2011 to 2021 using nonparametric Mann–Kendall (MK) test. The trend magnitude for each of the parameter is studied using Sen’s slope estimate. The result of the decadal study showed that there has been a strong negative trend reflecting the general consistent decline in the annual average rainfall pattern temporally. On the other hand, a non-significant negative trend was witnessed in the case of annual average temperature showing the overall decline in temperature over the last ten years but with varying yearly fluctuations. The groundwater levels trend analysis shows an overall negative trend of falling groundwater level during the pre-monsoon period. However, a locally varied trend was observed in the post-monsoon season where certain stations showed the rise in GWL. Decline in the annual average rainfall and temperature were associated with the gradual impact of climate change on the northern Gangetic plains of India. Declining groundwater levels during pre-monsoon season was attributed to the delayed and declining rainfall pattern, resulting in groundwater extraction during the sowing season of kharif crops. On the other hand, variability in the groundwater level trends during post-monsoon was attributed to the possible role of concretisation in urban areas, increasing surface runoff and its extraction for household and agricultural activities during lean season. Since this area has been limited studied in the context of impact of climate change on climatic variables and groundwater levels, this study would further aid the future researches, policy making and agricultural management.KeywordsGroundwater levelsMirzapur districtRainfallTemperatureClimate changeMann–KendallSen’s slope

The increasing frequency of extreme rainfall is leading to a rise in groundwater levels in coastal areas, significantly affecting high-speed railway operations. To address this concern, this study developed a 2.5-dimensional finite element model of a coupled track-embankment-ground system based on Biot’s porous media theory to analyze the effect of groundwater level rise on the critical velocity of high-speed railways and vibration responses. The findings reveal a consistent decrease in the critical velocity of high-speed railways with rising groundwater levels. Particularly, the increase in groundwater levels within the embankment significantly influences the critical velocity compared to a similar rise in the foundation’s groundwater level. Furthermore, deformations induced by passing trains significantly increase as groundwater levels rise. Specifically, when the groundwater level rises from the foundation bottom to the subgrade surface, subgrade surface deformation increases by approximately 55%. As trains approach the critical velocity, significant vibration phenomena, known as the “Mach effect,” occur at the foundation surface. Importantly, as groundwater levels rise, the “Mach effect” intensifies. Analyzing the vibrating frequency spectrum of the displacement response demonstrates a substantial increase in vibration amplitude, particularly in the high-frequency region, as groundwater levels rise. This study highlights that the rise in groundwater level not only amplifies vibrations but also extends the propagation of high-frequency vibrations, underscoring the importance of effective embankment waterproofing in controlling track vibrations.

Groundwater levels at a power plant site were analyzed using statistical techniques to ascertain if there was any influence from an earthquake that occurred approximately 27 km away. This earthquake was the Mw 5.5 Gyeongju earthquake that occurred on 12 September 2016 at 11:32 UTC in South Korea. Groundwater levels at five groundwater monitoring wells were examined against the 2016 Gyeongju earthquake, local precipitation, and local tide levels. A visual examination of the groundwater monitoring well data suggested no real effect or influence from the earthquake. However, precipitation data implied a rise in groundwater levels. Cross-correlation analyses also showed no significant relationship between groundwater levels and the earthquake in question. Interestingly, three of the five groundwater monitoring wells suggested a low-to-moderate correlation between groundwater and tide levels while the remaining two groundwater monitoring wells showed a low-to-moderate correlation between groundwater levels and precipitation. Granger causality tests suggested a closer relationship between tide and groundwater levels for two of the wells, questionable results describing precipitation for another two wells, and no relationship with the earthquake for four of the wells. Data resolution plays an important role in the analyses.

The rising of groundwater levels in urban and rural areas is a relevant topic of the Urban Hydrogeology because it affects different areas of the world requiring specific analyses and mitigation measures by the institutions involved in the protection and security of the territory.In the last century, in many developed countries processes of deindustrialization and urban transformation have caused the rising of groundwater levels and severe economic and social impacts.The aim of this paper is to analyse the rising of groundwater levels in a multi-layered pyroclastic-alluvial aquifer, located in the coastal plain eastward of Naples (southern Italy) and its interactions with buildings and agricultural lands.The research has been carried out by means of: i) analysis of stratigraphic settings by 86 boreholes and reconstruction of hydraulic conductivity logs; ii) reconstruction of a 2D hydrostratigraphic model of the multi-layered pyroclastic-alluvial aquifer; iii) slug test and multi-temporal hydrogeological monitoring of 83 wells, 9 piezometers and 12 river water levels; iv) analysis of daily rainfall time series; v) hydrogeological monitoring of impacted buildings and agricultural lands.For the monitored period (November 2013-March 2015), the groundwater table showed a generalized rise, although with a spatial variability. The rise of groundwater levels ranged from a minimum of 0.10 meters, in the central and eastern sector of the study area, to a maximum of 2.05 meters, in the south-western sector, with an average growth rate of about 0.16 m.The distribution of the impacted areas is not spatially homogeneous, and it was observed to vary over time. The hydrogeological interactions between groundwater and urban and rural areas are affected by: i) foundation types of buildings and the depth of the underground structures; ii) presence of shallow aquicludes (marshy clay-sands, clay-silts and peat levels) that determine local conditions of confinement for groundwater; iii) hydraulic efficiency and maintenance state of the dense network of drainage channels and micro-channels, which were historically built to drain surface water and groundwater in rural areas.The obtained results provide the basic data to set up a numerical groundwater flow model, which is an indispensable tool to simulate and predict the hydrogeological effects of possible safeguard actions on urban and agricultural areas.

Large barrages have been constructed on the main rivers in South Korea to store water and mitigate fluvial flooding damage. However, the increase in water levels behind the barrages can potentially lead to a rise in groundwater levels in the riversides. The purpose of this study was to describe the effect of a barrage on groundwater levels and to test the applicability of a numerical model to groundwater inundation in this context. The Shincheon–Baekcheon catchment is characterised mainly by agricultural land use and includes significant greenhouse cultivation. Its two zones, which are lower A and upper B basins, mainly yield fine- and coarse-grained deposits, respectively. Trend and distribution analyses of manual and automatic measurements of groundwater levels indicated that: (1) the groundwater levels generally increased as the river water levels rose after the river was dammed; (2) the significant correlation between groundwater and river water levels could lead to reductions in the groundwater levels if the barrage gates were opened as a control measure; and (3) the lowering of high groundwater levels during dry seasons is important for preventing soil wetting in the riversides.

In addition to unthinking anthropogenic meddling with the subtle ecological balance, the territories of Al-Aba Oasis are witnessing various Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes. Comprehending LULC is a central facet of upholding a sustainable, friendly, and fit environment. This paper presents a spatiotemporal study of land use and land cover trends in the wetlands of Al-Aba Oasis, an ecologically sensitive area in the west of Ras Tanura in the east of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The study area faces several environmental problems, including the rise in groundwater levels, expansion of agricultural land, urban expansion, and anthropogenic interference with the ecological balance. In this paper, a verified representation of the changes in each LULC class has been made using satellite images. Remote sensing imagery is helpful for studying temporal changes in LULC and providing environmental monitoring data. We analysed Landsat-5 and Sentinel-2 imagery for 1985, 2000, and 2021. The overall precision besides the kappa coefficient for precision assessment indicates the relevance of the LULC classification. LULC map products were overlaid and interpreted based on post-classification change detection methods. The LULC aspects were classified into six classes: water body, waterlogged area, sabkha soil, sandy area, cultivated area, and built- up area. The results prove that from 2001 to 2021, the extension of the built-up area (2.6%) and agricultural land (6.85%) is directly proportional to the population growth (36.5% between 1992 and 2004) and the sabkhas are subject to constant metamorphosis under the joint influence of urban and agricultural land expansion. 100 samples were collected for the years 1986, 2001, and 2021 to assess the accuracy. We reviewed the outcomes of this study by evaluating the accuracy (77, 81, and 84% for 1986, 2001, and 2021 respectively) and comparing the field truth using a GPS (Global Positioning System) sensor. The results of this study are useful in the development of environmental policies during the development of sustainable territorial development programmes of the oasis.

It is well documented that groundwater levels in a number of cities in this country and abroad have been rising over the past few years. Parts of central London are experiencing rises of one metre per year, while in Paris, previously dry basements are now affected by severe flooding. The extraction of good quality water from city wells for a variety of industrial and domestic purposes led to a general lowering of groundwater levels from the early 1800s. During the period of depressed groundwater levels development within restricted city centre sites required higher buildings with deeper basements and foundations. Communication networks also moved underground to ease congestion at the surface. A large percentage of this work was carried out during a period when the groundwater was tens of metres below ground level; a situation accepted as being stable at the time. Consequently the effect of a higher water table was often not considered in the geotechnical design of structures. Within central London the water table is still very deep and may not cause problems for years to come. In Birmingham the situation is more critical and the rise in groundwater level is already causing problems. Computer model predictions play a leading role in predicting tomorrow’s groundwater levels. Evidence suggests that groundwater levels in the near future will attain those of natural conditions. The effect that these levels will have on current structures requires assessment. Simplified calculations for the London area show that the bearing capacity of deep basement foundations and piles could be reduced by 25’30% if the rise in groundwater level continues. High levels of sulphates have been recorded during recharge experiments and these will produce adverse effects on unprotected foundations. Problems with high artesian pressure during construction are also likely if the aquifer is confined. These is an urgent need to assess the geotechnical risk to engineering structures with respect to the rising groundwater levels. This should be carried out now so that problems can be properly anticipated and solutions developed in good time.

Reallocation of water and the hydrological effects of climate change: The upper Rio Grande Basin, Southwestern USA

Abstract. Groundwater levels in shallow aquifers underlying Asian mega-deltas are characterized by strong seasonal variations associated with monsoon rainfall. To resolve trend and seasonal components in weekly groundwater levels in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) Delta, we apply a nonparametric seasonal-trend decomposition procedure (STL) to observations compiled from 1985–2005 in Bangladesh. Seasonality dominates observed variance in groundwater levels but declining groundwater levels (>1 m/yr) are detected in urban and peri-urban areas around Dhaka as well as in north-central, northwestern, and southwestern parts of the country (0.1–0.5 m/yr) where intensive abstraction of groundwater is conducted for dry-season rice cultivation. Rising groundwater levels (0.5–2.5 cm/yr) are observed in the estuarine and southern coastal regions. This novel application of the STL procedure reveals, for the first time, the unsustainability of irrigation supplied by shallow aquifers in some areas (e.g., High Barind Tract) of the GBM Delta and the hydrological impact of potential seawater intrusion of coastal aquifers associated with sea-level rise. Our findings provide important insight into the hydrological impacts of groundwater-fed irrigation and sea-level rise in other Asian mega-deltas where monitoring data are limited.

Groundwater levels are rising in many urban areas primarily because of reduced pumping from the underlying aquifers for industrial processes. This Paper reviews the engineering and environmental implications for urban areas affected by rising groundwater levels. The potential problems and possible control and mitigation measures are illustrated by reference to studies in London and Birmingham managed by the Construction Industry Research and Information Association.