Groundwater and Its Potential for Soil Irrigation Purposes in Arid Ecosystems of the Terek-Kuma Lowland

Free living amoebae isolation in irrigation waters and soils of an insular arid agroecosystem

<b><sc>Abstract.</sc></b> The evaluation of groundwater quantity and quality is important for developing different civilizations and establishing a database for planning future water resources development strategies. The objective of the study area is to assess the suitability of groundwater quality for irrigation and drinking purpose in a wasteland region, Tamil Nadu, India. Seventeen parameters were considered for the study. The ionic balance error for cations and anions considered for the study was found to be 7%. The average fluoride concentration of the region needs critical monitoring as it's only 20% less than the standard. Based on the Drinking water quality index, the water is found unsuitable for drinking. Hence it is necessary to do proper treatment of water before using it is drinking purposes. The average PI value of the region is 72%; thus, though water is suitable for irrigation purposes, it might slightly influence the permeability of the soil. The average KI value is greater than one; hence the groundwater is unsuitable for irrigation purposes as it might result in an alkaline hazard. The average irrigation water quality of the region is 64 and falls under the average class. The water can be used for irrigation in soil with moderate to high permeability value for cultivating plants of moderate salt tolerance.

In this study, the wastewater treatment performance, reuse of effluents for irrigation purposes in agriculture and its effect on plants, and soil have been investigated in an arid region of Jordan over three years. For this purpose, two pilot plants of wastewater treatment by vertical flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) in Jordan were selected for reuse application in irrigation purposes in respect to the WHO regulations for reuse and the Jordanian standards for reuse in irrigation JS. The VFCW systems have shown high removal of COD, TSS, and BOD&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; over the monitoring phase, conforming to the JS Category-A. Whereas, effluent TN and NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;-N concentrations were 55 and 44 mg/L, conforming to the JS Category-B (TN: 70 mg/L and NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;-N: 45 mg/L). The two-stage VFCW has shown high removal of COD, TSS, and BOD5, conforming to the JS Category-A. The short-term impact of reuse the effluents in irrigation was investigated with different water quality and quantity (11 and 6 mm/day) using a subsurface irrigation system. A significant difference in ECs, SAR, Mg&lt;sup&gt;+2&lt;/sup&gt;, Ca&lt;sup&gt;+2&lt;/sup&gt;, and Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; was observed in the topsoil (0 - 20 cm) as a result of high evaporation and capillary rise that increased salts accumulation. Results showed no significant variation in soil physical properties (texture, structure, moisture, and infiltration rate) among reuse plots. In addition, results revealed an absence of E. coli in the irrigated soils, indicating the effectiveness of using subsurface irrigation as a disinfection step for reuse. During irrigation of lemon trees using subsurface irrigation, soil results exhibited no significant variation in soil physical properties (texture, structure, moisture, and infiltration rate) among reuse plots. Further investigation was helpful to judge the impact of using treated wastewater in irrigation.

In this study, the assessment of surface water quality of Oued Fodda dam was carried out by using the physicochemical and organic data recorded during the period from 2009 to 2016, which were measured monthly near the water intake in this dam. The basic parameters (pH, EC, TDS, O2, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, SO42−, BOD, COD, OM, NH4+,NO3−, NO2− et PO43−) are used to determine organic water pollution and water quality for different uses, such as irrigation and industrial purposes. The evaluation of the suitability of surface water for irrigation purpose was done by the basic criteria such as sodium hazard (% Na), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and water quality index for irrigation (WQII). All these index methods indicate good water quality in this dam, which can be used to irrigate all kind of plants without real problem on agricultural yield rate, and without a problem of sodium and salinity hazards or permeability on the irrigated soils, mainly if an adequate drainage systems will be installed. The assessment of organic water pollution index (OWPI) indicates variation of water compounds concentration from month to another, that is due to multiple anthropogenic activities, and natural processes on upstream of this dam. The water passes from low pollution in the period of water inputs to moderate pollution in the period of reduction of water volumes in the dam. The fitness of water for industrial purpose by index methods (LSI and RSI) reveals an alternation between water quality from slightly to heavy corrosion (corrosion will proceed) unhindered by scale formation, generally, in the period of water inputs, and water quality of little scale forming with little to significant corrosion, which can be observed inside pipe, generally, from on the period of water volume decease.

The studying of water quality (WQ) is to determine the competence of water source for different uses. Water Quality Index (WQI) is a mathematical device used to translate huge data for water testes to simple number, This number gives comprehensive idea to the water source quality level. In this study, many samples from selected points of Tigris river stage within the intakes of eight Water Treatment Plants (WTPs) of Baghdad city were collected and tested during (2009-2010) , These (WTPs) arranged according to itsposition from the north of Baghdad city to it’s south respectively as follows (Karkh ,Tigris– East ,Wathba, ,Karama ,Qadisiya ,Dora ,Wahda and Rashid in the south).Twenty parameters were tested for an average one sample of each parameter in each month within the year(2009-2010).Canadian Council of Ministry of the Environment (CCME,2001) procedure was used to determine (WQI) of the raw water in the intake of these (WTPs). Results showed that the best (WQI) was in the intake of Al-Karkh and the worst was in Al- Rashid (WTP). Another comparison for the suitability of the raw water in irrigation purpose was tested by comparing the average of each (T.D.S and EC. ) for a one year with the criteria of each of American Salinity Library (ASL) and with Russian classification(R.C), and the results showed high concentrations of salinity , so the irrigated soil with this raw water needs good drainage system.

The article presents thorough information about the results of the research in the irrigated meadowgrey soils of the area where the grain was planted in the Salyan plain. The research shows that strong differences between the subsoil waters mineralization and change of their location levels were not observed in the experimental area in 2015–2018. However, in 2015 the location levels of subsoil waters changed by 2.40–2.55 m, their mineralization was – 1.244 – 2.577 q/l. These indicators changed to 2.40–2.60 m and 1.210–2.430 d/l in 2016; 2.50–2.55 m and 1.030–2.320 g/l in 2017; 2.45–2.55 m and 1.183 – 2.159 g/l in 2018. During the research the author studied the waters of Akusha canal, water-collector and drains which are used with the purpose of irrigation. It has been determined that their mineralization was 0.81 g/l, 6.663 g/l and 4.834–5.242 g/l in 2015. These indicators changed as follows: 0.675 g/l; 6.003 g/l and 4.651–4.823 g/l in 2016; 0.612 g/l; 5.872 g/l and 4.731–4.602 g/l in 2017 and 0.578 g/l; 5.752 g/l and 4.651–4.513 g/l in 2018. The agromeliorative measures have been offered for the purpose of subsoil waters decrease and their mineralization increase in the same zone taking into account all the indicators.

Undisturbed samples were taken, at depths from 7 to 80 cm from six soils representative of major series on the alluvium of the Gisborne Plains. Determinations were made of hydraulic conductivity at the water contents prevailing soon after drainage, of the tension/water content relationship, and of air content at a tension of 50 cm of water (‘large pores’). Hydraulic conductivities were high to medium for soils classed as recent, and low for the gleyed recent and older gley soils; large pore contents were reasonably high for all soils, and capacities for storing plant‐available water were average for five of the soils but above average for the soil on the most recent flood deposits. Replicated samples were taken at certain depths. Statistical analysis on the test results from these showed that the standard errors of the properties measured were rather low and that hydraulic conductivity was isotropic. Soil horizons containing Taupo Pumice had anomalous properties, including low density, high hydraulic conductivities, or content of large pores out of proportion to conductivity. The use of these soils for irrigation is favoured by the good to reasonable contents of air to be expected after saturation and drainage and by their ability to store adequate water for use between applications.

The use of conservation agriculture (SWC-soil and water conservation) technologies is now becoming more and more necessary. For the soils in arid ecosystems, the problem of irrigation deficiencies has always been relevant, and clean fresh water is always insufficient to irrigate these agricultural lands. This paper provides a brief historical overview of the use of mineralized water sources in agriculture and their impacts on soils and plants (Triticum aestivum L.). The experiment involving wheat cultivation in saline soils irrigated with mineralized water was set for 3 years. The main chemical and physical-chemical properties of the agro-transformed solonchaks and mineralized water sources were investigated. According to the contents of mobile forms of N, P, and K, the soils were poorly supplied; after a series of irrigation phases, they remained the same. There were signs of the growth of mobile phosphorus in the variants where mineralized water sources were applied. Our results showed that under conditions of irrigation with water sources with mineralization rates of up to 2.8-3.5 g/L, the wheat yield increased by 1.5 c/ha compared to the control. The use of mineralized water for irrigation purposes will reduce the use of clean river water.

Injudicious use of irrigation water repeatedly over the time with high water demanding crops on clay dominating soils causes salt affected soils with problems like reduced permeability and poor drainage in arid and semiarid regions and around canal command areas. The soils with rich in clay with impeded drainage unable to each out salts effectively. Further, less use of organic manures, imbalanced fertilization, denial for soil and irrigation water testing, same type of fertilizer use, multi-nutrient deficiencies, less response ration from different soils and crops, no inclusion of green manuring crops consistently reducing soil health. The main cause that irrigation water quality affects soil health is by influencing its salinity levels through the accumulation of dissolved salts. If the water contains too many minerals, especially sodium, it can negatively affect plant growth and soil structure. The quality of irrigation waters differs in various regions, countries and locations based on how the groundwater has been extracted and used, the rainfall intensity and subsequent aquifer recharge. The use of groundwater for agriculture in hot arid and semiarid countries where rainfall is scarce leads to increase groundwater salinity and limits the selection of crops for cultivation. It is therefore important to determine the irrigation water quality. The concentration and composition of soluble salts in water determines its quality for irrigation. Four basic criteria for evaluating water quality for irrigation purposes are water salinity (EC), sodium hazard (sodium adsorption ratio-SAR), residual sodium carbonates (RSC) and specific ion toxicity. Toxicities of boron and chlorides to plants are described. More specifically the relative tolerance levels of plants to boron is tabulated for easy understanding. Further filed level practical management and cultural measures were also scanned from literature in order to control the salinity. In order to sustain soil health it is very essential to adopt irrigation water and soil test based cropping pattern with site specific appropriate strategies.

Effect of produced water treatment technologies on irrigation-induced metal and salt accumulation in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

Hydrochemical analysis of groundwater using multivariate statistical methods — the Volta region, Ghana

Stable isotope data and concentrations of the major cations and anions of groundwater from the northern part of the Volta Region, Ghana, were used to determine the source of recharge and the suitability of groundwater in the area for irrigation. This study finds that the delta deuterium (δD) and delta Oxygen-18 (δ18O) data from the area fall along the global meteoric water line (GMWL). An equation of regression derived for the relationship between δD and δ18O bears very close semblance to the equation which describes the GMWL. On the basis of this, groundwater in the study area is probably meteoric and fresh. The apparently low salinities and sodicities of the groundwater seem to support this interpretation. The suitability of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposes is related to its source, which determines its constitution. A plot of the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and electrical conductivity (EC) data on a semilog axis, suggests that groundwater serves good irrigation quality in the area. Sixty percent (60%), 20% and 20% of the 67 data points used in this study fall within the medium salinity–low sodicity (C2–S1), low salinity–low sodicity (C1–S1) and high salinity–low sodicity (C3–S1) fields, which ascribe good irrigation quality to groundwater from this area. Salinities range from 28.1 to 1,956 μS/cm, whilst SAR values fall within the range 0–3. Extremely low sodicity waters of this kind, with salinities lower than 600 μS/cm, have the tendency to affect the dispersive properties of irrigation soils when used for irrigation. About 50% of the groundwater in the study area fall within this category and need prior treatment before usage.

The study is to understand the physico-chemical characteristics and different applications of sugar mill effluent considered compared with (permissible limits) standards given by the Tamilnadu pollution control board (TNSPCB) towards treated effluent water for agricultural irrigation purpose from a point source. The effluent was used in the application of seed germination and seedling growth on fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) and mustard (Brassica nigra) in five different concentrations (10, 25, 50, 75, and 100%). The seeds of fenugreek and mustard shows maximum germination of 95 and 80% growth in effluent irrigated soil. The result shows water and the soil irrigated with 10% effluent were found most suitable for germination. The morphological parameters such as germination percentage, shoot length, root length, fresh weight, and dry weight of seedlings and seed vigor index were calculated. The seed germination and growth parameters increased in lower (10%) concentration of sugar mill effluent and these morphological parameters gradually decreased with increasing effluent concentration. The less amount (10%) concentration of sugar mill effluent may be used for irrigation purposes.

The assessment of irrigation water quality and the study of its negative influence on soil are very important, because the soil salinization is one of the most important ecological problems. Water quality parameters such as pH, TDS, EC, contents of SO4 2−, Cl−, HCO3 −, CO3 2−, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+ and K+ in Qiala reservoir were determined. This water is used for the irrigation of the soils in Tikanlik oasis. Monthly water sampling was done in 2007. The analysis indicated that major dominant water type was Na+-Cl−. For the classification of irrigation properties of the water the following chemical indices were calculated: sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, sodium percentage, permeability index and irrigation coefficient. The classifications of Wilcox and USDA Salinity Laboratory were also used. The analysis of all classification methods have lead us to the conclusion that there was a low possibility of sodium or alkalinity hazard in the soils irrigated by the water of Qiala reservoir but there was a big salinity hazard. This negative influence was also confirmed by IWQI, through calculation of which the various quality indicators of irrigation water were generalized and represented by a single value. The salinization degree of the soils in the 14 different areas of Tikanlik oasis and the dynamics of its changes during the irrigation period were studied as well. During the irrigation period TDS and EC values increased abruptly in the upper soil horizon. All this led to the accumulation of high quantity of salts in the upper soil horizon during the irrigation season. Continuous monitoring of surface water by IWQI is the effective way for the complex assessment of irrigation water quality as well as for the control of the soil salinization process.

Heavy metal (HM) contamination in agroecosystems and edible crops is a worldwide issue. It is becoming an emerging threat to globalfood security. There is a huge pressure on the entire world to fulfill the increasing demand for food to nourish the burgeoning population.The periodical monitoring to assess the HM contamination in the agricultural land and the edible crops may help in tracking the HMstatus, thereby minimizing the risk of HM toxicity. The objective of the present study was to check the physicochemical propertiesof the river water used for irrigation purposes and soil for the cultivation of edible crops along with the presence of different heavymetals (HMs) viz., copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) nickel (Ni), and iron (Fe) in the Subarnarekha river water, soil and vegetables viz.,coriander (Coriandrum sativum), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), brinjal (Solanum melongena), chili (Capsicumannuum) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). The results obtained from the analysis of physicochemical characteristics of water foundthe temperature in the range of 19.33 to 22.45oC, pH 5.83 to 7.43, EC 197.33 to 485.138 mho/cm with iron as the highest available heavymetal with a concentration of 1.909 mgl-1 and cadmium was found in the least concentration (0.011 mgl-1). The findings of differentsoil properties revealed that the soil is good for the cultivation of crops but the presence of some heavy metals like Cd and Pb in theedible parts of the vegetables especially at the sites Namkum, Sembo and Kumba Toli indicates the need for periodical evaluation ofsoil to assess their levels. HM accumulation in the edible parts of the vegetables was found below the permissible limits prescribed byFAO and WHO except at a few sites.