Greenhouse Gases as Clues to Permanence of Farmlands

Climate Change and Health: Strengthening the Evidence Base for Policy

Globally, agriculture is directly responsible for 14% of annual greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions and induces an additional 17% through land use change, mostlyin developing countries (Vermeulen et al 2012). Agricultural intensification andexpansion in these regions is expected to catalyze the most significant relativeincreases in agricultural GHG emissions over the next decade (Smith et al 2008,Tilman et al 2011). Farms in the developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa andAsia are predominately managed by smallholders, with 80% of land holdingssmaller than ten hectares (FAO 2012). One can therefore posit that smallholderfarming significantly impacts the GHG balance of these regions today and willcontinue to do so in the near future.However, our understanding of the effect smallholder farming has on theEarth’s climate system is remarkably limited. Data quantifying existing andreduced GHG emissions and removals of smallholder production systems areavailable for only a handful of crops, livestock, and agroecosystems (Herrero et al2008, Verchot et al 2008, Palm et al 2010). For example, fewer than fifteenstudies of nitrous oxide emissions from soils have taken place in sub-SaharanAfrica, leaving the rate of emissions virtually undocumented. Due to a scarcity ofdata on GHG sources and sinks, most developing countries currently quantifyagricultural emissions and reductions using IPCC Tier 1 emissions factors.However, current Tier 1 emissions factors are either calibrated to data primarilyderived from developed countries, where agricultural production conditions aredissimilar to that in which the majority of smallholders operate, or from data thatare sparse or of mixed quality in developing countries (IPCC 2006). For the mostpart, there are insufficient emissions data characterizing smallholder agricultureto evaluate the level of accuracy or inaccuracy of current emissions estimates.Consequentially, there is no reliable information on the agricultural GHG budgetsfor developing economies. This dearth of information constrains the capacity totransition to low-carbon agricultural development, opportunities for smallholdersto capitalize on carbon markets, and the negotiating position of developingcountries in global climate policy discourse.Concerns over the poor state of information, in terms of data availability andrepresentation, have fueled appeals for new approaches to quantifying GHGemissions and removals from smallholder agriculture, for both existing conditionsand mitigation interventions (Berry and Ryan 2013, Olander et al 2013).Considering the dependence of quantification approaches on data and the currentdata deficit for smallholder systems, it is clear that in situ measurements must bea core part of initial and future strategies to improve GHG inventories and

Problem: Mitigating the production of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and developing strategies to prepare for changes in climate is an important challenge to the transportation planning profession. Purpose: This article identifies the research needed to inform planning practice on the relationship between transportation and climate change. Methods: I chaired the panel that prepared a recent Transportation Research Board special report on research needs related to reducing GHG emissions from the transportation sector and adapting transportation systems to climate change. The report considered needs both for short-term policy guidance and for longer-term research into fundamental relationships between GHG emissions, climate change, and transportation. Here, I review those findings and highlight the questions of greatest importance to planning. Results and conclusions: Additional research is needed on: the range of GHG impacts; how and whether to consider indirect GHG impacts; the sensitivity of GHG emission estimates to variations in critical assumptions; the range of GHG reduction strategies that should normally be analyzed; the level of GHG analysis appropriate for small-scale planning studies; whether to use lifecycle or operational GHG; how to define a preferred scenario; the extent to which reducing GHG emissions affects other goals and priorities; and the costs and tradeoffs associated with options for mitigating GHG emissions. This research should yield policy direction for planning practice on: how to rank GHG reduction compared to other transportation goals; what state or federal requirements for GHG planning will be and how they will relate to regional and local policy goals and constraints; what new information analysis and evaluation should produce; what changes will be needed in data collection, models, and methodologies to yield this; and whether changes will be needed in interagency consultation and public involvement. Takeaway for practice: I recommend a comprehensive research program that addresses these questions, reduces uncertainty about relationships between transportation and GHG emissions, and informs planners and others about the consequences of potential transportation strategies. Research support: None.

Electrified vehicles, including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs), have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from personal transportation by shifting energy demand from gasoline to electricity. GHG reduction potential depends on vehicle design, adoption, driving and charging patterns, charging infrastructure, and electricity generation mix. We construct an optimization model to study these factors by determining optimal design of conventional vehicles (CVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs, and BEVs and optimal allocation of vehicle designs and charging infrastructure in the fleet for minimum lifecycle GHG emissions over a range of scenarios. We focus on vehicles with similar size and acceleration to a Toyota Prius under urban EPA driving conditions. We find that under today’s U.S. average grid mix, the vehicle fleet allocated for minimum GHG emissions includes HEVs and PHEVs with ~30 miles (48 km) of electric range. Allocating only CVs, HEVs, PHEVs, or BEVs will produce 86%, 1%, 0%, or 13+% more life cycle GHG emissions, respectively. Unlike BEVs, PHEVs do consume some gasoline; however, PHEVs can power a large portion of vehicle miles on electrical energy while accommodating infrequent long trips without need for a large battery pack, with its corresponding production and weight implications. Availability of workplace charging for 90% of vehicles optimistically reduces optimized GHG emissions by 0.5%. Under decarbonized grid scenarios, larger battery packs are more competitive and reduce life cycle GHG emissions significantly. Future work will relax modeling assumptions and address life cycle cost and cost-effectiveness of GHG reductions.

Agriculture could play a prominent role in U.S. efforts to address climate change if farms and ranches undertake activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or take greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. These activities may include shifting to conservation tillage, reducing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied to crops, changing livestock and manure management practices, and planting trees or grass. The Federal Government is considering offering carbon offsets and incentive payments to encourage rural landowners to pursue these climate-friendly activities as part of a broader effort to combat climate change. The extent to which farmers adopt such activities would depend on their costs, potential revenues, and other economic incentives created by climate policy. Existing Federal conservation programs provide preliminary estimates of the costs of agricultural carbon sequestration.

<p><strong>Background</strong>. Feeding cattle in small-scale silage-based dairy production systems can improve their production efficiency while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. <strong>Objective</strong>. To determine the effect of partial replacement of corn silage with sorghum silage on the concentration of secondary metabolites in terms of Total Phenols (TP), Total Tannins (TT), and Condensed Tannins (CT), as well as to estimate methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. <strong>Methodology</strong>. The treatments were analyzed with a split-plot experimental design where the treatments (main plot) were; T1 = 50% sorghum silage cv Top Green + 50% corn silage, T2 = 50% sorghum silage cv Caña Dulce + 50% corn silage, T3 = 100% corn silage cv Cenzontle (control), and the measurement periods were the minor plots. <strong>Results</strong>. Inclusion of sorghum silage decreased enteric methane and carbon dioxide emissions (P<0.05), even though the concentration of phytochemical compounds among cultivars was not variable (P>0.05). <strong>Implications</strong>. Understanding the impact of changing forage chemical composition on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in dairy systems is an important issue for mitigating climate change. <strong>Conclusions</strong>. The inclusion of sorghum silage in this study slightly reduced enteric methane and carbon dioxide emissions. Under these conditions, it is suggested that more information be provided on greenhouse gas emission factors and mitigation strategies in small-scale production systems.</p>

ORYX GTL, a joint venture between shareholders Qatar Petroleum and Sasol Synfuels International, is a pioneering gas-to-liquids (GTL) facility that produces premium diesel fuel, naphtha and LPG. The objectives of this paper are related to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) management at ORYX GTL: it aims toidentify the various sources of GHGdescribe the methodology to quantify GHG emissionsidentify various opportunities to reduce GHG emissions, andprovides a case study on GHG emission reduction through utilization of tailgas as fuel in fired heaters. The paper is organized in two sections; the first section presents a brief overview of the ORYX GTL process, identifies the various GHG emission sources, quantifies the GHG emissions and describes the concepts and options to reduce GHG emissions. The second section describes a case study on the opportunity to optimize fired heaters to make use of tailgas and steps that can be taken to make use of these opportunities. A brief overview is also provided on projects executed by ORYX GTL to support the company's strategy of optimizing sustainability and stability by reducing GHG emissions. The major GHG emission sources from the ORYX GTL facility are broadly classified as combustion and flaring emissions. The GHG emissions at ORYX GTL are derived from estimates and calculations taking into account the composition of fuel streams, the energy content of the fuel, available measurement data, emission factors and mass balance approaches. It was found that flaring of tailgas contributes significantly to the release of GHG emissions from the ORYX GTL facility. The GHG reduction was achieved by making use of Advanced Process Control techniques, utilization of tailgas for fuel, and recovery of low pressure vent gases to use as fuel in process heaters. The use of tailgas as a fuel to fired heaters increased from 10% to 90–95% of total heat duty since start-up. The increase of tailgas as fuel resulted in the reduction of natural gas as fuel, improving the carbon efficiency of the plant and thus reduced the environmental impact. In 2012, a 23% reduction in GHG emissions was achieved compared to 2011 levels due to maximizing tailgas utilization as fuel and stable plant operations. The results from this study highlight that a further reduction of GHG emissions is achievable by focusing on plant stability and flare reduction projects. 1. Introduction The growing world energy demand for fossil fuels plays a key role in the continuous increase in GHG emissions into the atmosphere. According to the IPCC, atmospheric GHG concentrations will more than triple in the next 50 years compared to pre-industrial levels if no action is taken, posing climate change risks such as damage to natural ecosystems and more extreme weather conditions [1]. As global concerns intensify to reduce GHG emissions, there is a continuous increase in demand for ultra-clean fuels derived from natural gas. Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) technology converts natural gas into high performing, ultra-clean liquid fuels, as alternatives to the conventional refining of crude oil. In the past ten years, there have been technological advances in developing GTL technology on a larger scale, with several commercial scale plants commissioned. This new and emerging technology is expected to contribute a larger share of the world's gas-processing industry in the future [2, 3].

In this paper, we used the life-cycle analysis (LCA) method to evaluate the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of natural gas (NG) distributed generation (DG) projects in China. We took the China Resources Snow Breweries (CRSB) NG DG project in Sichuan province of China as a base scenario and compared its life cycle energy consumption and GHG emissions performance against five further scenarios. We found the CRSB DG project (all energy input is NG) can reduce GHG emissions by 22%, but increase energy consumption by 12% relative to the scenario, using coal combined with grid electricity as an energy input. The LCA also indicated that the CRSB project can save 24% of energy and reduce GHG emissions by 48% relative to the all-coal scenario. The studied NG-based DG project presents major GHG emissions reduction advantages over the traditional centralized energy system. Moreover, this reduction of energy consumption and GHG emissions can be expanded if the extra electricity from the DG project can be supplied to the public grid. The action of combining renewable energy into the NG DG system can also strengthen the dual merit of energy conservation and GHG emissions reduction. The marginal CO2 abatement cost of the studied project is about 51 USD/ton CO2 equivalent, which is relatively low. Policymakers are recommended to support NG DG technology development and application in China and globally to boost NG utilization and control GHG emissions.

The contribution of agriculture to the emission of the main greenhouse gases, CO2, N2O, and CH4, is estimated to be between 25 and more than 50% of the total emissions worldwide. These data indicate that in developed, industrialized countries, severe policies might be successful in strongly reducing greenhouse gas emissions by focusing on agriculture. However, despite its central importance, agriculture is not at the center of political debate or meaningful emission-reducing policies. In this scientific review, current knowledge of the factors affecting the emission of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, from agriculture is critically discussed. The pathways through which the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture can be achieved are evaluated. For this purpose, we list the main factors contributing to the emission of greenhouse gases from agriculture and evaluate the roles of agricultural intensification, industrialization, and organic farming in greenhouse gas emissions. If the present trajectory of agricultural development continues, industrialized, intensive conventional agriculture will become an increasing source of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Also, the increasing quantitative relevance of energy plants in agriculture will contribute to increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Organic agriculture may offer an alternative means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by applying the following central boundary conditions: a. the omission of mineral nitrogen fertilizers produced by the Haber–Bosch process, b. the combination of crop and livestock production, and c. the application of nutrient recycling at a regional level. This kind of organic agriculture may combine relatively high and sustainable crop yields with low emissions of greenhouse gases. Industrialized agriculture, whether in its conventional or even its industrialized organic form, is an important source of greenhouse gases with increasing emissions worldwide. Under conditions of agricultural industrialization, industrialized organic agriculture will also contribute to increasing greenhouse gas emissions. At present, there are no political attempts in the countries of the industrialized Western hemisphere to address agriculture-related contributions to greenhouse gas emissions.

Major US electric utility climate pledges have the potential to collectively reduce power sector emissions by one-third

Importance of reducing GHG emissions in power transmission and distribution systems

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the effects of three strategic environmental options on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Namely, we examine the effects of pollution prevention and waste management (PPWM) practices, green supply chain (GSC) practices, and outsourcing on reducing local and supply chain GHG emissions.Design/methodology/approachUsing ASSET4 and deploying first-differencing fixed-effects panel data models, the study conducts a large-scale empirical examination on the effects of these focal strategic environmental options on GHG emissions.FindingsThis study finds that PPWM practices reduce local GHG emissions and that GSC practices reduce supply chain GHG emissions. The results also show that outsourcing does not reduce local GHG emissions and has an adverse effect on supply chain GHG emissions.Practical implicationsThe study findings indicate that environmental practices are effective in reducing GHG emissions. However, they are effective only in their corresponding domain. Further, outsourcing is not a viable strategic option, and managers should be mindful of its undesired environmental consequences.Originality/valueFirms undertake strategic environmental options, such as implementing environmental practices and reallocating production activities, to improve their environmental performance. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these options on reducing GHG emissions has not been thoroughly examined.

BackgroundThe typical Western diet is associated with high levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and with obesity and other diet-related diseases. This study aims to determine the impact of adjustments to the current diet at specific moments of food consumption, to lower GHG emissions and improve diet quality.MethodsFood consumption in the Netherlands was assessed by two non-consecutive 24-h recalls for adults aged 19–69 years (n = 2102). GHG emission of food consumption was evaluated with the use of life cycle assessments. The population was stratified by gender and according to tertiles of dietary GHG emission. Scenarios were developed to lower GHG emissions of people in the highest tertile of dietary GHG emission; 1) reducing red and processed meat consumed during dinner by 50% and 75%, 2) replacing 50% and 100% of alcoholic and soft drinks (including fruit and vegetable juice and mineral water) by tap water, 3) replacing cheese consumed in between meals by plant-based alternatives and 4) two combinations of these scenarios. Effects on GHG emission as well as nutrient content of the diet were assessed.ResultsThe mean habitual daily dietary GHG emission in the highest tertile of dietary GHG emission was 6.7 kg CO2-equivalents for men and 5.1 kg CO2-equivalents for women. The scenarios with reduced meat consumption and/or replacement of all alcoholic and soft drinks were most successful in reducing dietary GHG emissions (ranging from − 15% to − 34%) and also reduced saturated fatty acid intake and/or sugar intake. Both types of scenarios lead to reduced energy and iron intakes. Protein intake remained adequate.ConclusionsReducing the consumption of red and processed meat during dinner and of soft and alcoholic drinks throughout the day leads to significantly lower dietary GHG emissions of people in the Netherlands in the highest tertile of dietary GHG emissions, while also having health benefits. For subgroups of the population not meeting energy or iron requirements as a result of these dietary changes, low GHG emission and nutritious replacement foods might be needed in order to meet energy and iron requirements.

International concern is now focused on reducing green house gas (GHG) emissions which drive climate change. The use of fossil fuels, either flaring natural gas and burning fossil fuels, are predicted contributing GHG emissions. As a consequence, International cooperation through United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has pointed to increase policy interest in developing CO2 and GHG emission trading system. The system would allow the countries who have opportunities to reduce CO2 and GHG emission (generally developing countries) and sell or trade GHG emission reduction to the countries (generally developed countries). The second part of this paper will be emphasized on oil and gas reserves, production, refineries,and utilization. Indonesia oil resource as of January 1st, 2006 amounts to about 56.60 BBO, while gas resources as of January 1st, 2006 is about 334.5 TSCF. Indonesia has nine refineries owned by PT Pertamina (Persero) and six refineries owned by private. Indonesia has also voluntary participated in reducing GHG emissions by formulating energy policy, doing research on carbon capture and storage (CCS), and developing innovative projects. This paper will highlight the energy policy, research program and innovative projects for reducing GHG emission from oil and gas activities in Indonesia

This paper presents the results of a study conducted by Itron, Sustainable Conservation and Bowen & Associates for the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) to investigate the status and costs of controls for reducing emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from small (100 to 300 kW) reciprocating engines operating on biogas from dairy digesters. During the course of the study, it became apparent that simultaneous environmental policies have created a fundamental “catch 22” situation for California’s biogas industry. On one hand, California air quality regulations require distributed generation (DG) technologies to achieve aggressive emission limits for control of oxides of nitrogen (NOx). At the same time, California’s Governor and Legislature have passed landmark legislation calling for GHG emissions to be reduced by twenty-five percent to 1990 levels by no later than 2020. A “catch 22” occurs because while DG technologies, particularly biogas fueled technologies, can play a key role in reducing GHG emissions, NOx control technologies needed to meet the required NOx levels have not matured to commercial readiness. This requires project developers to take substantial risks on both the financial and technical front without the likelihood of recouping their investments. The result creates an impasse that potentially deprives California not only of forward progress in reducing GHG emissions but forestalls significant interim NOx reductions that could otherwise be achieved. However, the situation highlights a problem that extends beyond California’s borders and the biogas industry: how to simultaneously achieve aggressive air quality targets while making significant reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This paper presents the findings of an investigation into proposed NOx emissions limits for biogas to energy applications and how those requirements interact with policies to reduce GHG emissions.