Green Nanofertilizer for Climate-Resilient Agricultural Practices: An Overview

International audience

Plant responses and adaptations to a changing climate.

This chapter observes the implications of climate change on production and yield of crops, and food security (FS) in India as per the previous studies. It also explains that climate change induced pests and insects in the agricultural sector. It also analyzes the role of adaptation and mitigation strategies in the agricultural sector and FS. The yield and production of crops are predicted to decline due to climate change and pests' germination. The use of technologies, mixed cropping pattern, cropping intensity, climate-resilient crops, drought-tolerance crop, irrigation facilities, soil management, water harvesting, bio-technology, green fertilizer, hybrid varieties of seed, soil conservation, crop rotation, appropriate technology, digital technology, ICT, and integrated pest management strategies will be effective for agricultural sustainability and FS in India. It also suggests the scope of further research in the above-mentioned fields.

The agricultural sector in Ethiopia is highly dependent on rainfall patterns, making it especially susceptible to climate change. As a result, climate change significantly affects crop production and food security in the country. However, the impact of these changes remains inadequately understood. Consequently, this paper aims to review the impact of climate change on agricultural production and food security in Ethiopia. Keywords such as climate change, impact, crop production, food security, and Ethiopia were used to extract data from reputable databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and Sherpa Romeo to ensure that only the most relevant information was included. The review showed that Ethiopia has experienced a reduction in crop yield in general and occurrences of food insecurity. For instance, due to climate change, corn yields decreased from 45.6 quintals per hectare in 2011 to 32 quintals in 2021, and wheat yields dropped from 33 quintals per hectare in 2011 to 29 quintals in 2021. Therefore, policymakers, extension agents, and farmers need to scale up indigenous and improved crop production technologies along with different management practices to address food security and crop production loss in the country. Moreover, capitalizing on existing development policies and programs, enhancing research and extension services, strengthening linkages between stakeholders, and raising awareness among local communities about climate change and crop production is necessary.

is one of the most important sectors in the Sri Lankan economy and contributes 7.9% for the national GDP. As the staple food, paddy production is playing a key role in the agricultural sector, contributing 0.9% to national GDP. However, Sri Lanka as a small island is more susceptible to most of the climatic change impacts like increasing temperature of land and sea surface and changes of the rainfall pattern, extreme drought and flood conditions. Nevertheless the agriculture sector ishighly sensitive to climate change in both short and long-term ways and it is important to pay attention on the impact of climate change on the agriculture sector in Sri Lanka.The study assessed the awareness of recent changes in the extreme climatic events and its impact on paddy production in the Kalthota irrigation scheme which is recorded as the second largest paddy producer in Rathnapura district and the highest water consuming area for paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka. It further explored the perception of paddy farmers on the impact of climate change, existing adaption methods and limitation factors that affected the adaption measures.Simple random sampling technique was used to select 63 paddy farmers and primary data were collected using structured questionnaires and direct observations. Journal articles and reports of Meteorology Department were used as secondary data sources. The collected data were analysed by using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. The results indicated that majority of the paddy farmers (92.1%) were aware of the climatic change effect on the crop yield, however, only 38.1% were practicing different adaption methods such as using drought-resistant varieties and changing harvesting time.However the results also indicated(31.7%) that the farmers have an inclination on performing various spiritual activities believing that these supernatural practices have an impact on changes of climate and adaption for the rainfall pattern changes based on their experience. Inadequate information on adaptation practices and income options act as barriers in shifting to different adaption measures. Nevertheless, the study revealed that even though the farmers are aware on the detrimental effects of the climate change, adapting different strategies to mitigate climate is not taken in to account. The study also revealed that the responsible authorities should implement different strategies to educate farmers on the various adaption techniques. Keywords:Climate change, Agriculture, Paddy, Adaptation, Sri Lanka

Climate change impact on the agricultural sector is expected to be significant and extensive in Sub-Saharan Africa, where projected increase in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns could determine sensible reductions in crop yields and concerns for food security achievement. This study presents a multi-model approach to analysing climate change impacts and associated risks for staple food crops in Nigeria. Previous attempts to evaluate climate change impacts in Nigeria had mainly focused on a reduced number of crops, with analysis limited to single experimental fields or specific areas, and in many cases considering only a limited number of climate models. In this work, crop simulation models implemented in the DSSAT-CSM software were used to evaluate climate change impacts on crop production in different Agro-Ecological Zones, considering multiple combinations of soils and climate conditions, varieties and crop management. The climate impact assessment was made using an ensemble of future climate projections, to include uncertainty related to climate projections. Even if precipitations could increase in most parts of Nigeria, this is not likely to offset the crop yield reduction due to the increase in temperatures, particularly over the medium-term period (2050), with yield decreases projected especially for cereals. The short-term effects are more uncertain and yields for cassava and millet might actually increase by 2020. Moreover, yield reductions are only partially mitigated by the direct effect of increased CO2 atmospheric concentration enhancing crop yield. In both periods and for all crops, there is a higher risk that crop yields may fall below the actual risk threshold.

Evolving environmental conditions due to climate change have brought about changes in agriculture, which is required for human life as both a source of food and income. International trade can act as a buffer against potential negative impacts of climate change on crop yields, but recent years have seen breakdowns in global trade, including export bans to improve domestic food security. For countries that rely heavily on imported food, governments may institute policies to protect their agricultural industry from changes in climate-induced crop yield changes and other countries' potential trade restrictions. This study assesses the individual and combined effects of climate impacts and food self-sufficiency policies in Korea, which is highly dependent on imports. We use the Global Change Analysis Model (GCAM), a global integrated assessment model, to explore (1) the direct impact of climate change on Korea's agricultural yields, (2) the full impacts of global climate change on agricultural production, including trade-induced changes due to yield changes in other regions, (3) the impacts of food self-sufficiency policy, and (4) the interactive impact of climate change and self-sufficiency policies. We find that, in Korea, the direct impact of climate change on agricultural yields would be overshadowed by the impact of global climate change due to changing trade patterns. Second, global climate change leads to a rise (rice and wheat) or a decline (soybeans) in Korean producer revenues, while simultaneously raising consumer expenditures on both staples and non-staples. Third, implementing self-sufficiency policies for wheat and soybeans in Korea boosts the nation's producer revenues, in conjunction with the effects of climate change, at the cost of additional increases in consumer expenditures for both staples and non-staples.

The growth of agricultural sectors can be maintained by increasing crop productivity through soil, water, and nutrient management. The most important management practice is nutrient management, which is supported by the effective use of nano-technology, especially nano-fertilizers. It is well known that nano-fertilizers are nutrient carriers of nano dimensions ranging from 30 to 40 nm (10−9 m or one-billionth of a meter). Due to their high surface area, they can hold abundant nutrients ions and release them slowly and steadily, commensurate with crop demand. Nano-fertilizers are easily uptaken and assimilated by the plants because of their ease of solubility, stability, controlled release in time, and easy mode of delivery and disposal. Due to nano fertilizers characteristics, different commercial products are available in the market, namely Nanogro, Geohumus, NanoGreen, and Lithovit High Yield fertilizer, which can be demonstrated among the farmers for increasing agricultural performance through soil and nutrient management. Besides, nano-fertilizer has good criteria like disease resistance properties. Nanoparticles of ZnO, CuO, and MgO can kill different fungal infections of crop plants. Though nano-fertilizers can be beneficial for improving agricultural performance, it has a detrimental effect on soil microflora, fauna, animals, and humans. It is associated with several diseases or hazards like high blood pressure, blood clots, stroke, arrhythmia, heart disease, etc. Nano-fertilizer also improves the yield of several field crops like pearl millet, wheat, pomegranate, onion, tomato, soybean, and vegetable crops like spinach and cucumber. Nano fertilizers also have sound capabilities to find the solution against the issues arising in modern agriculture due to conventional fertilizer application. Thus, nano-fertilizer has the potential to improve the yield of several field crops.

This study assessed the growth rate of commercial and food-grain crops due to technological change in Gujarat. Growth rate model was employed to examine the growth rate of area sown, production and yield of crops. Subsequently, impact of technological change, and other inputs on yield of individual crop was estimated using a Cobb-Douglas production function model. Time trend factor was used as a proxy variable to capture the impact of technological change, and other inputs (i.e., area sown, irrigated area, application of fertilizer, agricultural labors, rural literate population and annual actual rainfall) on yield of crops. Growth rate of cropped area, production and yield of cotton, sugarcane, castor, potato, rice, arhar, maize, gram and wheat crops were seemed positive in Gujarat. Yield of cotton, sugarcane, castor, rice, arhar, maize, bajra, gram, wheat, jowar ragi, potato, groundnut, sesamum, rapeseed&mustard and soyabeans crops was positively associated with time trend factors. Furthermore, the regression coefficient of time trend factor with yield of cotton, tobacco, potato, groundnut, sesamum, rapeseed & mustard, rice, arhar, maize, bajra, gram, wheat, jowar and ragi was reported positive and statistically significant. Hence, the estimates shows that yield of aforesaid crops were improved due to application of technological change in agricultural sector in Gujarat. Several practical policy suggestions are given to increase the use of technology in agricultural sector to improve the growth of major food-grain and commercial crops.

Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th

Nutrients present in the soil are taken up by plants for their successful growth and survival. Loss of essential elements from soil, mainly by leaching, volatilization, erosion, and uptake by plants, reduces soil fertility and necessitates application of multiple-element fertilizer to make up this loss. Nutrient use efficiency of plants lies around 30–35%, 18–20%, and 35–40% for N, P, and K, respectively, with the conventional fertilizers. The use of biofertilizers in combination or in place of chemical fertilizers could not make much difference. Currently, nano-fertilizers (NFs) seem to hold promise to improve the nutrient use efficiency and hence the crop yield. They ensure a better delivery of elements such as P and Zn, which are otherwise poorly bioavailable. They also reduce the loss of runaway nutrients such as nitrate. Nano-fertilizers are produced mainly through encapsulation or coating of nutrients with nanoemulsions and nanoparticles (NPs), respectively. The NFs thus serve as nanocarriers of nutrients, which may be categorized as nanoclays, hydroxyapatite NPs, polymeric NPs, carbon-based nanomaterials (NMs), mesoporous silica, and miscellaneous materials. Interestingly, nanomaterials, including aptamer derivatives, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, etc., are also used in agriculture sector as nanosensors (or nano-biosensors) to indicate the presence of microbes, contaminants, pollutants, toxins, pH level, nutrient level, and moisture content. In general, all NFs provide a slow, steady, and time-dependent release of essential nutrients to ensure their delivery to the plant in a balanced and need-based form. NFs can improve the nutrient use efficiency about threefolds and improve the crop productivity by promoting seed germination, seedling growth, nitrogen metabolism, photosynthetic activity, protein synthesis, antioxidant defense, etc. Some limitations and adverse effects of NFs have also been reported. However, these can be overcome by proper standardization of NF dose and selection of befitting NM for the test crop. Efficacy of the NF depends on its capacity of ionization and successful delivery of nutrients to the sink, which are modulated by the chemical composition of NMs, their concentration and aggregation state, metabolic potential of plant species, and the local environmental conditions. It is important to investigate whether NFs are fully transformed into ionic forms in the plant and later incorporated into proteins and different metabolites, or some of their parts remain intact and reach the consumers through food chain.

Agriculture is the most susceptible sector to climate change related hazards. This is due to the fact that climate change affects the two most important direct agricultural production inputs and these are precipitation and temperature. The impacts of climate change on crop production and coping mechanism differ from place to place which is situated in different agro-ecological zones. Therefore, this study analyzed the impacts of climate change on crop yields in three purposively selected woreda’s of south Gonder Zone. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. In this paper, climate data were taken from Bahir Dar Meteorological Agency (BDMA) while crop yield data were obtained from South Gonder Zone Agricultural Development Office (SGZADO). The data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.0 and Microsoft Excel in order to evaluate the impact of climate change on the yields of different crops in South Gonder Zone, Ethiopia. Multiple regression, trend analysis and correlation analytical techniques were used to anlyze the data. The result showed that the annual total rainfall and mean annual temperature have been increased by an average of 126.52mm (p<0.01) and 0.531°C (P<0.01) per year respectively for Addis Zemen Station. This confirms the occurrence of global warming at Addis Zemen station. An increasing trend of crop yield data for rice, teff and maize were observed from 2003-2012 for Addis Zemen station while an increasing trend of crop yield data for teff, wheat, barley, maize, bean and pea have been observed from 2003-2012 for Mekane Eyesus stations. The result obtained from the analysis carried out indicated that the impact of rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature have been statistically insignificant except rainfall against teff, minimum temperature for teff and chickpea crops and maximum temperature for wheat, barley and pea cereal crops at 95% and 99% probability level whereas the impact of climate on the yield of rice, maize,sorghum, bean and cowpea have been statistically insignificant. Efforts should be made to increase the cultivation of crops on which the impacts of climate on their yield is insignificant.

The present study was taken up in Sivagangai district to examine the issues of trend in climate change, association between climate change and area, production and productivity of crops and impact of climate change on production of crops. The climate trend in Sivagangai district was studied using the descriptive statistics of skewness, kurtosis, coefficient of variation and compound growth rate of climatic variables of maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall over the past 50 years from 1971 to 2020. Pearson correlation technique was used to analyze the degree of association between climatic variables and area, production and productivity of principal crops namely paddy, black gram and groundnut. Cobb-Douglas production function model was fitted to study the quantitative relationship between the average production of principal crops grown in the district and the climatic variables of temperature and rainfall and cropped area. Maximum temperature and minimum temperature were negatively skewed and rainfall was positively skewed. Kurtosis for maximum temperature was platykurtic and for the minimum temperature and rainfall of Sivagangai district, the kurtosis was Leptokurtic. The maximum temperature and minimum temperature were less variable and rainfall was highly variable. Pearson correlation coefficient revealed that maximum temperature, minimum temperature and rainfall had significant association with area, production and productivity of crops in Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu. Cobb- Douglas production function analysis revealed that annual rainfall had a positive relationship with production of paddy. On the other hand, climatic variables of temperature and rainfall were not influencing the groundnut and black gram production.

With their many benefits including better crop yield and nutrient delivery, nano fertilizers are a promising option in the agriculture sector. The production and formulation of nanoparticles with regulated size, shape, and content are required to prepare nano fertilizers. Metals, metal oxides, and polymers are among the materials from which nanoparticles are made using chemical and physical processes. Subsequently, these nanoparticles are mixed into fertilizers to enhance plant absorption and availability of nutrients. Nano-fertilizers have several benefits, including efficient nutrient absorption, reduced nutrient losses, minimized environmental pollution, optimized resource utilization, and controlled release of nutrients for sustained plant nourishment. Studies have demonstrated that by boosting nutrient availability, encouraging root development, and strengthening stress tolerance, nano fertilizers can greatly enhance crop yields. Moreover, it has been discovered that they increase microbial activity and soil fertility, which improves soil health and long-term sustainability. Nano-fertilizers can be applied in different ways, like foliar spraying, seed coating, soil integration, or irrigation systems. They are beneficial in precision agriculture for better nutrient management, soil restoration, and addressing nutrient deficiencies. Furthermore, they potentially lessen the negative environmental effects of traditional fertilization methods. Nevertheless, there are still several issues that need to be resolved before nano fertilizers may be commercialized and widely used. Regulatory frameworks, environmental destiny, potential toxicity of nanoparticles, and cost-effectiveness are some of these challenges. The purpose of this review is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the benefits of nano fertilizers. It will cover topics such as their preparation and characterization, potential side effects, and a diverse range of applications. Additionally, it will present an overview of the importation of chemical fertilizers and explore the prospects of utilizing fertilizers in the Ethiopian context.

The impacts of climate change on the food system are a key concern for societies and policy makers globally. Assessments of the biophysical impacts of crop productivity show modest but uncertain impacts. But crop growth is not the only factor that matters for the food production. Climate impacts on the labour force through increased heat stress also need to be considered. Here, we provide projections for the integrated climate-induced impacts on crop yields and worker productivity on the agro-economy in a global multi-sector economic model. Biophysical impacts are derived from a multi-model ensemble, which is based on a combination of climate and crop models, and the economic analysis is conducted for different socio-economic pathways. This framework allows for a comprehensive assessment of biophysical and socio-economic risks, and outlines rapid risk increases for high-warming scenarios. Considering heat effects on labour productivity, regional production costs could increase by up to 10 percentage points or more in vulnerable tropical regions such as South and South-East Asia, and Africa. Heat stress effects on labour might offset potential benefits through productivity gains due to the carbon dioxide fertilisation effect. Agricultural adaptation through increased mechanisation might allow to alleviate some of the negative heat stress effects under optimistic scenarios of socio-economic development. Our results highlight the vulnerability of the food system to climate change impacts through multiple impact channels. Overall, we find a consistently negative impact of future climate change on crop production when accounting for worker productivity next to crop yields.