Greater good from a distance: how psychological distance shapes utilitarian behavior

Risk communication is an effective means of emergency management. Online information plays an important role in risk communication, especially in the Big Data Era. Citizens' psychology to send and receive information determines their online behavior when they face risk. Using the Tianjin Port Explosions as an example, multiple linear regression analysis is used to untangle the relationship between online attention and psychology behavior under risk. Citizens' online attention is estimated by social media data collection from the Sina Weibo. Psychology behavior is quantified by psychological distance which consists of four dimensions: spatial distance, temporal distance, social distance and probability. The regression model is built via SPSS 20.0 and the obtained result is matched with actual situation. It indicates that online attention is negatively correlated to spatial distance, temporal distance and social distance while positively correlated to probability of the event. It also shows that citizens' online attention under risk is positively correlated to their online attention under normal circumstance. Based on the regression model, citizens' attention and response to emergency are easy to be assessed.

Public health emergencies not only threaten the physical and mental health of the public but also trigger a series of risky behaviors of the public, which in turn lead to the emergence or intensification of risk events, disrupting existing economic and social order. Based on construal level theory, cognitive appraisal theory of emotions and mood maintenance hypothesis, the study aims to investigate the collectively effect of risk perception and psychological insecurity in the connection between psychological distance and public risky behavior. Cross-sectional data was derived from 257 China urban residents. All participants finished the psychological distance scale, risk perception scale, psychological insecurity scale, and risky behavior scale. The research hypothesis was tested using the PROCESS macro. The direct impact of psychological distance on risky behavior was not significant (β=-0.018, p>0.05). The indirect impact of psychological distance on risky behavior was significant. In other words, the impact of psychological distance on risky behavior was serially mediated via risk perception and psychological insecurity (β=0.011, 95% CI= [0.0013, 0.025]). Risk perception and psychological insecurity play serial mediating roles in the relationship between psychological distance and public risky behavior. We conclude that during public health emergencies, public health managers should pay extra attention to the risk perception and psychological insecurity level of the public with closer psychological distance, take measures to reduce their risk perception, enhance their psychological security, and reduce their risky behavior, thereby ensuring the physical and mental health of the public and maintaining the stability of economic and social order.

The concept of shared space is proposed to improve the safety and health of vulnerable road users (VRUs) by promoting walking and cycling. However, despite the documented benefits of shared spaces, concerns were raised about the frequency and severity of road user interactions in shared spaces. Thus, the objective of this study is to investigate the microscopic behaviors and psychological characteristics of vulnerable road user interactions (i.e., pedestrian–e-bike interactions and pedestrian–cyclist interactions) in non-motorized shared spaces and their interplay mechanisms. We identify a total of 334 interactions in the same- and opposite-direction using the Dutch Objective Conflict Technique for Operation and Research (DOCTOR) method at four locations in Shenzhen city, China. Trajectories of road users involved in these interactions were extracted to identify key points in trajectories and interaction phases, considering both microscopic behaviors and psychological factors synthetically. The study also compared lateral and longitudinal decision distances, maneuvering distances, maneuvering time, and safety zones across different characteristics, including severity levels, road user types, genders, and whether road users carry large items or not. The results show that the main characteristic of the interaction’s starting and ending points changes in the lateral direction. Road users have a stronger sense of security in swerve-back phases. The average lateral psychological safety distance in shared spaces is about 1.125 m. Moreover, the average safety zone area for road users in opposite and same-direction interactions are 4.83 m2 and 9.36 m2, respectively. Road users carrying large items perceived a higher risk in shared spaces and required longer lateral psychological safety distances and larger safety zones. The findings of this study can be used to better design shared space facilities, considering the perceived risk of road users and their interactions and psychological behavior.

Purpose The authors proposed a conceptual model by examining the influence of threats to their freedom on tourists’ psychological distance including social distance, spatial distance, and temporal distance, which effect psychological reactance and the consequent online Airbnb booking intentions. Furthermore, media intrusiveness as a moderator determines the boundary conditions between perceived threats to their freedom and social distance, spatial distance, and temporal distance.Design/methodology/approachData was gathered from 491 Chinese travelers to provide empirical evidence. The authors performed data analysis in Amos 26.0 using structural equation modeling (SEM) and Hayes (2013) PROCESS macro.FindingsThe findings positively reinforced all the structural relationships of the study. Notably, media intrusiveness significantly moderates the association between perceived threats to their freedom and psychological distance (i.e. social distance, spatial distance, and temporal distance).Research limitations/implicationsThe findings contribute significantly to the field of social psychology, advertising, and consumer behavior derive prolific implications for policymakers and sharing economy platforms. Lastly, by identifying limitations, this research opens doors for future scholars.Originality/valueGovernments' acute precautionary measures in response to the COVID-19 outbreak have confined individual freedom across the globe. This study illuminates how tourists conceive these preventative measures as perceived threats to their freedom, and subsequently engage psychological reactance.

Part 1. Introduction: A Tale of Two Disciplines. M.Wanke, What's Social about Consumer Behavior? R.S. Wyer, Jr., R. Adaval, Social Psychology and Consumer Psychology: An Unexplored Interface. Part 2. The Construal of Consumer Judgments and Decisions. T. Eyal, N. Liberman, Y. Trope, Psychological Distance and Consumer Behavior: A Construal Level.Theory Perspective. A. Dijksterhuis, R.B. van Baaren, K.C.A. Bongers, M.W. Bos, M.L. van Leeuwen, A. van der Leij, The Rational Unconscious: Conscious Versus Unconscious Thought in Complex Consumer Choice. H. Bless, R. Greifenender, Brands and Successful Brand Extensions: A Social Psychology Perspective on Economic Questions. A. Chernev, R. Hamilton, Compensatory Reasoning in Choice. Part 3. Affective and Cognitive Feelings in Consumer Judgment. J. De Houwer, Conditioning as a Source of Liking: There is Nothing Simple About It. M.T. Pham, The Lexicon and Grammar of Affect-As-Information in Consumer Decision Making: The GAIM. N. Schwarz, H. Song, J. Xu, When Thinking is Difficult: Metacognitive Experiences as Information. Part 4. Social and Media Influences on Judgment and Behavior. S. Shavitt, A.Y. Lee, C.J. Torelli, Cross-Cultural Issues in Consumer Behavior. L.J. Shrum, Television Viewing and Social Reality: Effects and Underlying Processes. N.J. Goldstein, R.B. Cialdini, Normative Influences on Consumption and Conservation Behaviors. A. Kirmani, M.C. Campbell, Taking the Target's Perspective: The Persuasion Knowledge Model. Part 5. Goals and Self-regulation. A.Y. Lee, E.T. Higgins, The Persuasive Power of Regulatory Fit. M. Friese, W. Hofmann, M. Wanke, The Impulsive Consumer: Predicting Consumer Behavior with Implicit Reaction Time Measures. A. Fishbach, Y. Zhang, The Dynamics of Self-Regulation: When Goals Commit Versus Liberate.

Part I: Biological System. Caporael, Evolutionary Theory for Social and Cultural Psychology. Blascovich, Seery, Visceral and Somatic Indexes of Social Psychological Constructs: History, Principles, Propositions, and Case Studies. Ochsner, Social Cognitive Neuroscience: Historical Development, Core Principles, and Future Promise. Part II: Cognitive System. Dunning, Prediction: The Inside View. Roese, Sherman, Expectancy. Kruglanski, Sleeth-Keppler, The Principles of Social Judgment. Andersen, Moscowitz, Blair, Nosek, Automatic Thought. Fiedler, Information Ecology and the Explanation of Social Cognition and Behavior. Forster, Liberman, Knowledge Activation. Hilton, Causal Explanation: From Social Perception to Knowledge-Based Causal Attribution. Petty, Brinol, Tormala, Wegener, The Role of Metacognition in Social Judgment. Wyer, Jr. Principles of Mental Representation. Biernat, Eidelman, Standards. Shafir, Decisions Constructed Locally: Some Fundamental Principles of the Psychology of Decision Making. Liberman, Trope, Stephan, Psychological Distance. Part III: Personal Motivational System. Schwarz, Clore, Feelings and Phenomenal Experiences. Strack, Deutsch, The Role of Impulse in Social Behavior. Oyserman, Social Identity and Self-Regulation. Higgins, Value. Pittman, Zeigler, Basic Human Needs. Fishbach, Ferguson, The Goal Construct in Social Psychology. Baumeister, Schmeichel, Vohs, Self-Regulation and the Executive Function: The Self as Controlling Agent. Van Lange, De Cremer, Van Dijk, Van Vugt, Self-Interest and Beyond: Basic Principles of Social Interaction. Part IV: Interpersonal System. Maio, Haddock, Attitude Change. Simpson, Foundations of Interpersonal Trust. DeDreu, Beersma, Steinel, Van Kleef, The Psychology of Negotiation: Principles and Basic Processes. Semin, Grounding Communication: Synchrony. Shaver, Mikulincer, Attachment Theory and Research: Core Concepts, Basic Principles, Conceptual Bridges. Fiske, Berdahl, Social Power. Part V: Group and Cultural System. Brewer, The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations: Social Categorization, Ingroup Bias, and Outgroup Prejudice. Hogg, Social Psychology of Leadership. Vallacher, Nowak, Dynamical Social Psychology: Finding Order in the Flow of Human Experience. Levine, Kerr, Inclusion and Exclusion: Implications for Group Processes. Chiu, Hong, Cultural Processes: Basic Principles. Part VI: Applications of Social Psychology. Tyler, Jost, Psychology and the Law: Reconciling Normative and Descriptive Accounts of Social Justice and System Legitimacy. Rothman, Salovey, The Reciprocal Relation between Principles and Practice: Social Psychology and Health Behavior. Strauman, Costanzo, Jones, McLean, Merrill, Contributions of Social Psychology to Clinical Psychology: Three Views of a Research Frontier. Johnson, Pham, Johar, Consumer Behavior and Marketing. Tetlock, Psychology and Politics: The Challenges of Integrating Levels of Analysis in Social Science. Thompson, Pozner, Organizational Behavior. Snyder, Omoto, Social Action.

BackgroundThe perception behavior of the knowledge subjects can get certain feedback and enlightenment from the trend variation of knowledge level. The change of the psychological expectation and behavior of the knowledge subjects is of great significance to the evolution and utilization of the knowledge network structure in the complex system. At present, there have been many mature researches on the content of knowledge flow and knowledge diffusion between organizations based on network structure. This article combines the relevant theories of micro-behavioral psychology from the perspective of complex system evolution, to further explore the influences of four typical complex network structures evolution on the knowledge transfer behavior of the knowledge subjects and the knowledge level of the subjects.Subjects and MethodsIn this paper, a simulation research process is designed based on a complex knowledge network model. The calculation indicators mainly include three aspects: network value, node coupling costs, and weight values of relational edges. The node coupling costs are composed of three dimensions: the psychological distance cost between network nodes, the difference in cooperation value between network nodes, and the difference in connectivity between network nodes. Using programming, four programs are used to simulate and analyze the evolution of complex network structure based on the coupling cost of the knowledge subjects and the psychological expectations and behavior changes of the knowledge subjects.ResultsThe results of this paper show that the more frequent the interaction between network subjects, which is not necessarily greater beneficial to the knowledge subjects. In addition, the fair distribution of knowledge resources is not conducive to the growth of knowledge level. Among the four types of typical network evolution, the development of the small-world network structure is relatively stable, and the adaptive behavior of the knowledge subjects has produced relatively high expected value.ConclusionsThe stability of the network environment has an exogenous impact on the expectation and value level of the knowledge subjects. The development environment of the evolution of the small-world network structure is relatively stable, which can generate high psychological expectations for the adaptive behavior of the knowledge subjects. It provides a reference value for the knowledge transfer of the knowledge subjects in the evolution of the knowledge network. This article discusses the behavioral changes of network subjects from the perspective of the psychology of knowledge subjects, which has certain practical significance. However, it does not consider the initial endowment differences between the nodes and the alternate evolution process between complex networks. Therefore, follow-up researches can further optimize the understanding on the differences between subjects in the complex network and analyze the adaptive behavior of knowledge subjects.AcknowledgementsSupported by projects grant from National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 71602012); Humanities and Social Sciences Fund of the Ministry of Education (Grant No. 21YJC790122); and Philosophy and Social Science Fund Project of CDUT (Grant No. YJ2020-JX002).