Grammaticalization and subjectification in the semantic domain of possibility in Kirundi (Bantu, JD62)

This study presents a synchronic and diachronic analysis of the French and Italian aspectualizers commencer and cominciare from the perspective of grammaticalization theory. They show properties of both full verbs and auxiliaries, and thus have traditionally proven difficult to analyze. It is argued that these aspectualizers are best explained by taking into account their historical development from Latin initiare “to initiate”. Synchronic and diachronic data are presented in order to locate them on the Verb-to-TAM chain, a continuum ranging from full lexical verbs on one end to purely grammatical tense, aspect, and mood affixes on the other. Their mixed semantic and syntactic properties are due to their position on the continuum between lexical verbs and auxiliaries. The differences between commencer and cominciare with respect to their degree of grammaticalization are also discussed. Key words: grammaticalization; aspectualizers; auxiliary; commencer; cominciare

The aims of this research are to know about kinds of affix and how they are used in a story. Affixation is a part of morphology and it is a morphological process. Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, so it deals with the structure of words. It also relates with morpheme. There are two kinds of morphemes, they are: free morpheme and bound morpheme and bound morphemes are related to derivational and inflectional. Derivational morphology is related to affixes. Affixes can be distinguished by two primary types, they are: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are attached at the beginning of a lexical item or base morpheme; meanwhile, suffixes are attached at the end of a lexical item or base morpheme. Affixes are related to affixation. Affixation is adding established prefix and suffix to the existing base. There are two ways of affixes; (1) according to the positions and (2) according to the functions. According to the positions, there 3 types of affixes, they are prefix, infix and suffix. According to the functions, there 2 types of affixes, they are derivational affixes and inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes cause the semantic change, such as bake – baker, happy – unhappy, like – dislike; and category change, such as run (verb) – runner (noun), dangerous (adjective) – dangerously (adverb), writing (noun) – write (verb). Affixations are common used in a story. They are used as the words change a form or meaning depends on the sentence. The participants of this research are the students at one of English Courses in Gading Serpong, Tangerang. Class Action Research (CAR) was used as the method to do the research. The results of this research are: there are 2 prefixes found in the story, they are re- and step-, meanwhile there 5 suffixes found in the story, they are -er, -ed, -s, -ly and -ing.

The study of semantic change is one of the most important topics in which linguistic, linguists are interested in exploring their surroundings and deepening their surroundings. The significance of the study of this science is that its knowledge requires the student of knowledge to discover the meanings of the shar'i texts of the Qur'an and Sunnah before understanding other scientific, literary, and other texts. The semantic change changes the meaning of the word over time by elevation, degeneration, expansion, regression or metaphor. Towards it. This change is not subject to rules and regulations, and the new meaning of the term is often related to the meaning it used to have. The semantic development in most of its conditions is limited by time and money, and if it happens, In a particular environment, the effect of this change has been on the use of all members of this environment. There are factors that have caused a semantic change, including: historical and social, the need for naming, frequent use, mental and psychological reasons. The previous factors led to the emergence of multiple types of semantic change, such as: the allocation of significance, the generalization of semantics, the transfer of words to the similarity of meanings, the transfer of words to the relationship of meanings, the transfer of meanings to the similarity of words, the transfer of meanings to the juxtaposition of words.

1. INTRODUCTION This paper examines the status of the modal particle1 bi/by in three Slavic languages: Bulgarian, Macedonian and Russian, with a focus on the Russian data. The evolution of this modal particle in Slavic constitutes in many respects a canonical example of grammaticalization. A lexical item, in this case the verb to be in the aorist tense, was used with the l-participle to form an irrealis mood.2 Over time, in some of the Slavic languages, this auxiliary has lost inflectional properties and become an invariant particle. This shift from lexical item to grammatical form is accompanied also by increased restriction in syntactic position. Such changes are typical of the grammaticalization process. The comparison of Bulgarian, Macedonian and Russian data is valuable for two reasons. First, the Russian and South Slavic data illustrate some of the possible range in both rate and type of change involved in grammaticalization. Second, with this varied data before us we can address two frequently posed questions in work on grammaticalization: 1) What motivates grammaticalization?, and 2) What accounts for differences among languages in rate and type of change? This study suggests that answers to both of these questions are to be found in an appreciation of the structural differences among these three closely related languages. 2. WHAT IS GRAMMATICALIZATION? The term grammaticalization has primarily been understood to refer to a diachronic process, i.e., the process by which lexical or content items assume functions more grammatical in nature (or grammatical forms become even more so). However, much recent scholarship views grammaticalization from a synchronic perspective as well.3 While appreciating the historical nature of grammaticalization-the process-the focus in such works is on the results of this process at a given point in a language's development. Primarily synchronic studies, informed by the understanding that inherent features of the grammaticalization process such as different rates of change and less than complete applicability of a change, help us appreciate that what is evidenced synchronically at any given point may be some ambiguous or recalcitrant data. Such work underscores the essentially noncomplete nature of grammars and offers an explanation for those areas in a language's grammar which are in flux. The diachronic and synchronic approaches suggest different but interrelated models for analyzing data. The diachronic perspective is concerned primarily with how the historical process of change is conceptualized. The model usually employed is the cline of grammaticality, for example: content item > grammatical word > clitic > inflectional affix (Hopper and Traugott 1993: 7) The synchronic approach seeks to establish parameters for assessing the degree to which a given form in the contemporary language is grammaticalized. Measures to assess the degree of grammaticalization include such factors as decategorialization: lack of inflections associated with a particular category; recategorialization: reinterpretation as member of a different grammatical class; and lack of syntactic autonomy. Clearly these two analytical frameworks are linked. The cline of grammaticality posits that changes associated with the process of grammaticalization follow a path of predictable morphological developments. Synchronic measures of grammaticalization such as decategorialization and lack of syntactic autonomy can be shown to correlate with points along this historical continuum. For example, the position of a clitic is subject to greater syntactic restrictions than that of a grammatical word. This paper considers grammaticalization first and foremost from a synchronic perspective. I am not concerned so much with the evolution of the bi/by forms, but rather with their current status. There are two stages to this analysis. First I assess the degree to which the modal form bi/by is grammaticalized in contemporary Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Russian. …

This paper presents an account of the variation in Spanish Progressive constructions from the perspective of grammaticization. Retention of features of meaning from the source constructions is reflected in distribution constraints on the different auxiliaries, which, nevertheless, are converging toward continuous meaning. The evidence supports the hypothesis that progressives originate as locative or movement constructions and that the process by which they evolve is semantic generalization (as opposed to metaphor or pragmatic strengthening). An important mechanism in this grammaticization process is frequency of occurrence in certain contexts, in support of the view that frequent repetition plays a role in semantic change (Bybee and Thomspon 1997; Haiman 1994).

As an emerging address form, "Bao" is popular and widely used in media and has its own place in lovers' prattles. This article compares the newly fashioned address "bao" with the other two address forms, "bao bao" popular in 2015 as one of the ten buzzwords and "bao bei", respectively. It is found that the three shares the basic semantic meaning, but the degrees of their semantic extension differ. There are three semantic meanings: to refer to children from the parents' part, refer to someone in close relation, and refer to all the people. Meanwhile, "bao" has its distinctive features in pragmatic functions. The first one is to maintain a harmonious relationship, and the second is to achieve communicative goals. Therefore, we should consider when choosing among the three addresses, albeit their semantic generalization, in case of pragmatic failure.

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) enables assessing in-service structures’ performance by localizing structural anomaly instances immediately after their occurrence. Typical SHM approaches monitor the entire structural spatial domain aggravating the required density and cost of instrumentation. Further, with model-based approaches, the entire structural domain is needed to be defined with high dimensional, compute-intensive models rendering the SHM approaches ill-posed and slow especially when the instrumentation is limited and system observability is compromised. Moreover, in absence of high-fidelity models, oversimplification and subsequent model inaccuracies may lead to inaccurate estimation and possibly false alarms even if a subdomain is modeled inaccurately, e.g. support boundaries. To mitigate such issues, stand-alone monitoring focusing only on a subdomain of interest may be a computationally cheaper and prompt approach while being substantially robust to false alarms. Typically, such stand-alone substructure monitoring approaches demand extensive measurement of the interface, which can be a challenge in real-life applications. This paper presents a novel filtering-based online time domain approach for estimating substructure parameters without the need to measure or estimate the substructure interfaces. The proposed component-wise estimation is stand-alone so that the health estimation of the complete structural domain can be undertaken in parallel and later coupled through post-processing. The requirement of the interface measurement has been alleviated by employing an output injection approach. The proposal has been validated on a numerical beam structure subjected to arbitrary forces and subsequently, the sensitivity against noise and damage severity of the proposal has been investigated. Finally, the proposal is validated on a real beam to illustrate its real-life applicability and significance.

In Athabascan languages, verbal morphological structure does not follow the cross-linguistically more common and stable ‘layered’ order: derivational and lexical affixes are not necessarily closer to the stem than inflectional affixes. While the emergence of the Athabascan order is understandable through different layers of grammaticalization (Mithun 2011), the question of why this order is relatively stable in the language family has not yet been satisfactorily answered. The distributional properties of cognate Athabascan morphemes reveal historical tendencies for fusion and reordering that suggest that affixes remain in or change their position depending on the semantic relevance tootheraffixes, not necessarily to thestemalone, asBybee’s (1985)morphological theory would predict. An additional factor for the stability of non-layered structure of morphemes is the high degree of semantic generality found in affixes between the stem and other lexical and derivational affixes.

The topic of this review article is a volume addressing the relationship between polysemy and semantic change, a relationship which has been important in discussions of semantic theory and method particularly in recent years, and which has the potential to unite synchronic and diachronic approaches. The first part of this article consists of thorough reviews of the fourteen chapters in the volume, entitled From Polysemy to Semantic Change, edited by Martine Vanhove (2008). We review each of them in turn, providing a brief summary of the content of each chapter, as well as comments on the impact of the contribution to the study of polysemy and semantic change, and/or on its limits. The second part of the article presents a general evaluation of the volume, and reflects upon the achievements, limits and perspectives of the study of polysemy and semantic change. Some of the chapters demonstrate that a degree of generalization can be reached on these questions, and provide new and potentially productive ways forward in theory and method; others either do not have such aims, or struggle to provide a useful general framework. We consider why this may be the case, and suggest hypothetical solutions. In particular, we examine the difficulty met with drawing conclusions across semantic domains, and the lack of a framework taking language contact and diffusion into account in the study of semantic change.

The purpose of the paper is to present a new approach to semantic change where meaning alteration is perceived as a by-product of conceptual blending processes and diachronic structures are argued to possess the same characteristics as their synchronic counterparts. Thus, traditionally considered a subject of historical linguistics studiesparexcellence – semantic change – can be understood as conventionalisation of context-dependent modification of usage. The paper examines selected cases of changes in meaning pertaining to the semantic domain BOY and seeks the basis for their explanation in the blending operations of meaning construction. From this perspective, semantic change appears as a natural consequence of language usage directly related to cognitive processing.

This article focuses on the diachronic development of Englishturn outand Spanishresultar‘turn out’ mirative constructions. Having undergone processes of semantic generalization over time, both verbs express evidential and, most prominently, mirative nuances in the present-day languages. This study explores the mechanisms that condition the evolution ofturn outandresultarfrom their original meanings as lexical resultative and change-of-state verbs towards their eventual subjectification and grammaticalization as predicates conveying evidential and mirative senses. The present-day mirative constructions takethat- and infinitival complement clauses in both languages. The analysis suggested here shows that both verbs exhibit diverging, though closely related, paths and degrees of grammaticalization. Moreover, this study delves into the further development of these predicates as parenthetical expressions. While English parentheticalturns outhas already been grammaticalized, Spanishresultamay be on its way to becoming a grammaticalized parenthetical.

Traditionally, linguistics has been concerned with units at the level of the sentence or below, but recently, a body of research has emerged which demonstrates the existence and organization of linguistic units larger than the sentence. (Chafe, 1974; Goguen, Linde, and Weiner, to appear; Grosz, 1977; Halliday and Hasan, 1976; Labov, 1972; Linde, 1974, 1979, 1980a,198Cb; Linde and Goguen, 1978; Linde and Labov, 1975; Folanyi, 1978; Weiner, 1979.) Each such study raises a question about whether the structure discovered is a property of the organization of Language or whether it is entirely a property of the semantic domain. That is, are we discovering general facts about the structure of language at a level beyond the sentence, or are we discovering particular facts about apartment layouts, water pump repair, Watergate politics, etc? Such a crude question does not arise with regard to sentences. Although much of the last twenty years of research in sentential syntax and semantics has been devoted to the investigation of the degree to which syntactic structure can be described independently of semantics, to our knowledge, no one has attempted to argue that all observable regularities of sentential structure are attributable to the structure of the real world plus general cognitive abilities. Yet this claim is often made about regularities of linguistic structure at the discourse level. In order =o demonstrate that at leas= some of the structure found at the discourse level is independent of the structure of the semantic domain, we may show that there are discourse regularities across semantic domains. As primary data, we will use apartment layout description, small group planning, and explanation. These have all been found to be discourse units, that is, bounded linguistic units one level higher than the sentential level, and have all been described within the same formal theory. It should be noted that we do not claim that the structures found in these discourse units is entirely independent of structure of the semantic domain, because of course the structure of the domain has some effect.

The aim of this study is to compare the function and use of French and Swedish concessive conjunctions (bien que / quoique / encore que vs. trots att / fast / fastän). The analysis is based on a translation corpus, comprising French and Swedish fiction and non-fiction texts, and their translations into Swedish and French, respectively. It is argued that the semantic variation observed in the data is the result of a general diachronic semantic change including the following steps: nonsubjective > subjective > intersubjective. This reconstructive approach makes it possible to suggest a probable evolutionary path of the French and Swedish conjunctions and to determine their degree of grammaticalisation. The study also investigates differences in the use of the concessive conjunctions in fiction and non-fiction texts.

The article presents a study aimed at identifying the communicative and pragmatic properties of phraseological units functioning in the poetic texts of the collection "Impulse. New names." Since the use of phraseological units as in their original (dictionary) helps to create a special expressiveness and emotionality of each poem Similarly, in modified forms, the authors identify several types of phraseological units with structural and semantic changes. The theoretical basis of communicative and pragmatic phraseology studied by us served as an impetus for the search for new data in modern poetry. The specificity of the phraseology – context relationship lies in the fact that the phraseological unit represents both a special independent context and is part of the general context. The transformation of phraseological units is a process that includes various ways to update the usual stable expressions for the most adequate characterization of the described situation. A detailed study, selection and analysis of various types of stable phraseological expressions used and modified by the authors of the collection has been carried out. A special contribution of the authors to the study of the topic is the creation of a classification of phraseological units based on the studied material: with a reduction in the components of phraseology, with a change in the places of the components of phraseology, with an expansion of the lexical composition of phraseology, with a paradigmatic change in the core component of phraseology, with the replacement of one component of phraseology with another. In the course of the study, it was argued that semantic and structural changes within phraseological units are most often interrelated and imply each other. These changes and their varieties can be intertwined within the framework of a single poem or passage. In a poem, there may be phraseological units with the replacement of components, a phraseological unit with the reduction or expansion of components. Therefore, within the framework of one poem, it is possible to interact various phraseological units with a modified structure and semantics.

GABA(A) receptors are composed predominantly of alphabetagamma receptors, which mediate primarily synaptic inhibition, and alphabetadelta receptors, which mediate primarily extrasynaptic inhibition. At saturating GABA concentrations, the barbiturate pentobarbital substantially increased the amplitude and desensitization of the alpha1beta3delta receptor but not the alpha1beta3gamma2L receptor currents. To explore the structural domains of the delta subunit that are involved in pentobarbital potentiation and increased desensitization of alpha1beta3delta currents, chimeric cDNAs were constructed by progressive replacement of gamma2L subunit sequence with a delta subunit sequence or a delta subunit sequence with a gamma2L subunit sequence, and HEK293T cells were co-transfected with alpha1 and beta3 subunits or alpha1 and beta3 subunits and a gamma2L, delta, or chimeric subunit. Currents evoked by a saturating concentration of GABA or by co-application of GABA and pentobarbital were recorded using the patch clamp technique. By comparing the extent of enhancement and changes in kinetic properties produced by pentobarbital among chimeric and wild type receptors, we concluded that although potentiation of alpha1beta3delta currents by pentobarbital required the delta subunit sequence from the N terminus to proline 241 in the first transmembrane domain (M1), increasing desensitization of alpha1beta3delta currents required a delta subunit sequence from the N terminus to isoleucine 235 in M1. These findings suggest that the delta subunit N terminus and N-terminal portion of the M1 domain are, at least in part, involved in transduction of the allosteric effect of pentobarbital to enhance alpha1beta3delta currents and that this effect involves a distinct but overlapping structural domain from that involved in altering desensitization.