Gonosz lélek (רוח־רעה) az Úrtól? Az 1Sámuel 16,14–23 exegézise

Reviewed by: The Satan: How God’s Executioner Became the Enemy by Ryan E. Stokes Jeffrey Audirsch ryan e. stokes, The Satan: How God’s Executioner Became the Enemy (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019). Pp. xxv + 275. Paper $40. For many, the description of Satan in Revelation overshadows the larger portraiture in the Bible and in texts from Second Temple Judaism. Due to the growing interest in Satan within the academy, Stokes attempts to write “a history of the origin, shaping, and reshaping of beliefs about satan figures and about the Satan” (p. xiv). In this historical study, S. is not concerned with writing a theology of Satan or formulating a canonical perspective of evil. Nevertheless, the work does provide historical information that will certainly illuminate the theological understanding of Satan and the origin of evil. S. primarily utilizes a diachronic reading of important texts. Along the way, he provides readers with the important terminology and categories for understanding superhuman beings. The book is divided into nine chapters and a conclusion. A substantial bibliography is included for further research. In chap. 1, S. examines the origin of the Satan in the Hebrew Bible, arguing against the general consensus that defines the Satan as “adversary/accuser.” S. suggests that the meaning is closer to “attacker/executioner” (pp. 6–10). With a working definition, S. examines three specific texts that describe the role of the Satan (i.e., Numbers 22; Zechariah 3; and 1 Chronicles 21). Collectively, these texts “developed from the idea that the angel of Yahweh would at times serve as an executioner of the wicked into the idea that there was a particular satanic attacker distinct from the angel of Yahweh” (p. 27). These two ideas about satans suggest differing traditions in the Hebrew Bible. With chap. 2, S. focuses on the Satan and the Book of Job. After a helpful section on the composition of the Job story, S. suggests that the Satan material is supplemental (Job 1:6–12; 2:1–8) and later than the dialogues in the book. To substantiate his argument, S. highlights how Job’s friends are unaware of the Satan or any individual responsible for Job’s condition. The designation of “the Satan” (haśśāṭān) in Job, as in Zechariah 3, refers to a member/officer of the heavenly court—in this case, God’s executioner or attacker. With permission from God, the Satan searches the earth for evildoers so he can administer divine punishment. Unlike in the texts referenced in chap. 1, in Job the Satan attacked an innocent [End Page 495] person. For S., the Satan material in Job represents “the latest manifestation of the satan tradition” in the Hebrew Bible (p. 44). Stokes discusses in chap. 3 the taxonomies and terminology of demons, evil spirits, fallen angels, and human sin in the Hebrew Bible as well as their appropriation in the third-century b.c.e. work the Book of the Watchers. Although the authors of the writings in the Hebrew Bible did not see a correlation between demons, evil spirits, and fallen angels (i.e., the “sons of God”), the Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36) combined all three traditions. The Book of the Watchers identified the origin of evil spirits as the intermarriage between immortal and mortal (cf. Gen 6:1–4). Additionally, these sinful angels were identified as demons who were worshiped by other nations. In chaps. 4 and 5, S. explores the role of the Prince of Mastema and the evil spirits under his control in the second-century b.c.e. Book of Jubilees. For S., Jubilees makes a significant shift in the Jewish understanding and thinking about evil spirits, human sin, and human suffering. As in chap. 3, S. provides a brief study of the taxonomy, terminology, and titles for superhuman beings in Jubilees. Of interest is the Satan figure, “the Prince of Mastema,” who along with his evil and deceptive spirits, was responsible for identifying God’s chosen people from the other nations. The evil and deceptive spirits were tasked with leading the other nations into sin. The revealed word of God, however, provided a hedge of protection for Israel. The...

Intermediate Biblical Hebrew: An Illustrated Grammar

“A little East of Jordan”: Human-Divine Encounter in Dickinson and the Hebrew Bible Richard S. Ellis* (bio) The Hebrew Bible and Dickinson wrestle with the same enigma: with what artifices can language portray the unportrayable confrontation of the human and the Divine? Their solutions are strikingly similar. Both articulate the human-Divine encounter in language riddled with paradox, wordplay, and shifts of perspective fluctuating, at times almost instantaneously, between hierarchy and intimacy, transcendence and immanence, abstraction and sensation — all of which have the effect of creating multiple, often contradictory interpretations. Such similarities in theme and language use are facets of an intimate relationship between the Hebrew Bible and Dickinson that extends much deeper. As we will see in the context of Dickinson’s poem, “A little East of Jordan” (Fr145B), which treats Jacob’s encounter with the unknown adversary at Peniel, reading Dickinson through the lens of the Hebrew Bible gives insights not readily available through the usual lens of the King James Version. These insights illuminate the rest of her work and highlight her profound perception of the relationship between humanity and God, revealing numerous features shared with the Hebrew Bible. The greatest hidden text in Western civilization, the Hebrew Bible is known intimately through translation, but it is not widely known in its original form. Throughout the Hebrew Bible, the Hebrew language is used as the perfect medium to express a multifaceted vision of the human-Divine encounter. Literary techniques such as paradox and wordplay are natural outflows of the structure of this language and have important parallels in Dickinson’s poetry. Appreciating such artistry in the Hebrew Bible leads to a much deeper understanding of Dickinson. Jacob’s encounter with the unknown adversary at Peniel offers both a narrative emblem for these techniques and a concrete point for comparison [End Page 36] between Dickinson and the Hebrew Bible. Although Dickinson wrote only one poem (Fr145B) that names Jacob explicitly, Cynthia Griffin Wolff has pointed out that Dickinson identified closely with him, viewing the struggle at Peniel as an archetype of the poet’s struggle to wrest meaning from a chaotic, unpredictable universe (151–159). 1 The congruences between the Hebrew Bible and Dickinson’s poetry will be suggestively broadened when we consider parallels between their publication and interpretation history. Wrestling with the Angel — Art Dickinson’s poetic career was bracketed by references to Jacob’s encounter at Peniel. Poem Fr145B was recorded in a fascicle about early 1860 (Dickinson, Poems, ed. Franklin 186), while a letter written to Thomas Wentworth Higginson in spring 1886 soon before her death concludes with a characteristic misquotation of Genesis 32:26 (KJV): 2 “Audacity of Bliss, said Jacob to the Angel ‘I will not let thee go except I bless thee’ - Pugilist and Poet, Jacob was correct -“ (L1042). 3 The same misquotation also appears in a letter of mid-March of that year (L1035). The Bible was the book that, more than any other, helped make Dickinson a poet (McIntosh, ch. 3). However, her stance toward it was necessarily complicated, even paradoxical. According to the belief system of her day, the Bible was written in an authoritative and transparent language faithfully mirroring spiritual reality. “This notion of language depended on the inherent ‘truth’ of the word; no word could be ambiguous or ironic and still manifest the essential truth of God” (Miller 145). As a poet, Dickinson committed the supreme act of linguistic defiance by flipping that belief upside down. Like the Hebrew Bible, her poetry relies on the use of paradox, wordplay, and multiplicity of perspective as the most effective artifices for manifesting the essential truth about the human-Divine relationship. Hierarchy versus intimacy, transcendence versus immanence: the grand dichotomies of the religious experience. However, any tendency to label aspects of the Divine encounter in terms of such neat, mutually exclusive categories is thwarted by the poet. In her work, the human-Divine relationship is articulated, not as a fixed body of dogma, but as a verb, a field of force, a gymnastic somersaulting that never rests. Like the unknown adversary encountered by Jacob at Peniel, God can be encountered at any moment and in any place in an...

Many symptoms of possession described by exorcists correspond to the symptoms of psychiatric disorders. Before helping a person who feels that they are possessed by an evil spirit, one should answer this question: when is therapy necessary, and when is an exorcism required? The article points out that psychiatrists have different attitudes to theological explanations of possession and exorcism. According to the author, it is best to adopt a complementary attitude, such as leaves room for the thought that there exist two causes for the symptoms of possession - the natural and the supernatural one. This may then furnish a common approach for medicine, psychology and religion. The article presents the theological criteria for determining possession by an evil spirit, and the psychological criteria for diagnosing pathological possession, as given by the World Health Organisation (ICD-10) and the American Psychiatric Association (DSM 5). The author discusses similarities and differences between the theological criteria for diagnosing demonic possession and the criteria involved in a medical diagnosis. On the basis of both psychological and theological criteria, it is possible to recognize psychopathological states and demonic possession in multidimensional terms. This allows the author to distinguish four situations: (1) health, (2) psychopathological possession, (3) demonic possession of a mentally healthy person, and (4) coexistence of demonic possession with psychiatric disorders. Practical experience shows that the largest number of patients seeking help in health centres belongs to the fourth group, which is why there is a need for close cooperation between exorcists and psychologists or psychiatrists.

The general objective of this study was to investigate and describe the conceptualization of demons along with the process of treatments for mental illness of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. To meet this objective qualitative research approach, case study research method, was found to be appropriate. Entoto Hammere Noah Kidane Mihret Monastery was selected as a unit of analysis. From this unit of analysis, it was possible to draw sub units namely Exorcist/Priests, Treatments, and Clients. In fetching the required data, in-depth interviews were conducted with religious healers (n=4) and patients (n=2). Direct observation was also employed to study the available treatment processes and reactions of clients during treatments. A theme based frame work was followed to analyze the findings of the study; and the final reporting of the findings followed a linear analytic structure. Based on the posed research questions, eight themes that are grouped under three clusters, i.e. 1. how the story began comprising demons and possession as conceptualized in EOTC, origins of demons, possessing spirits, symptoms of a demoniac, causes of demonic possession, types of possession 2. the healing process in EOTC that include exorcism and healing rituals, and 3. Case presentations were developed. Demonic possession is believed to be the main reason of mental illnesses in the Ethiopian Orthodox church. Demons are recognized to be the archenemy of human race. In their aims and ways of attack, demons vary. There are many evil spirits or demons (including Zar, Buda, Ayine Tila, and Ye digimt Menfes) that are determined to possess human beings and inflict sickness. They possess people starting from their mother’s womb or after they are born. Some evil spirits are catching. They transmit from one host to the other by using parts of the body, an eye for example, as a bridge or through other means like conjuration. Once people get possessed by the evil spirits, they show different common symptoms. Possessions may be of a different type. Pathogenic possessions for example are distinguished from executive possessions based on the way the evil spirits manifest themselves in/through the host. Because the EOTC considers mental illness as the result of demons mischief, different symptoms of mental illnesses are considered to be the tricks in manifestation of the demons. There are different treatments available for the various problems of the clients. The treatments include Holy Water, Holy Oil, Cross, and Holy Ash. The main objective of the treatments is then flashing of driving out the possessing demons from their host.

For many Biblical Hebrew students, the transition from learning grammar to undertaking exegesis can be difficult. As these students begin to wade through jargon-laden, reference-volume-style syntax books, they simultaneously swim upstream in their quest not to forget the basics of Biblical Hebrew grammar. Additionally, consulting syntax books and mastering morphology does not automatically produce the discernment necessary for sifting through various options and drawing out exegetical insights. Thankfully, H. H. Hardy II’s Exegetical Gems from Biblical Hebrew is now available.The book divides into 30 chapters that cover an array of topics such as word studies, prepositions, pronouns, verb conjugations, verb stems, volitives, verbless clauses, and textual criticism. Every chapter begins with an untranslated verse of Hebrew, and Hardy identifies a grammatical feature from the verse that impinges on exegesis to introduce the topic of the chapter. Hardy offers an overview of the grammatical and/or syntactical topic and then concludes the chapter by assessing how best to understand the grammatical and/or syntactical feature in the verse that opens the chapter.Since Hardy is a graduate of the University of Chicago, renowned for its specialization in ANE languages, I knew the material would be trustworthy, but I was curious to see whether he would be able to address a nonspecialist audience in a way that informs exegesis. I am pleased to report that his writing is clear, and grammatical explanations are succinct, lacking unnecessary jargon. For instance, he defines verbal aspect as describing “whether the action is viewed as temporally bounded (perfective) or not (imperfective)” (pp. 57–58). He then provides a table to illustrate these aspects.Additionally, Hardy intertwines grammatical and exegetical decision making effectively. The result is that the reader not only learns what Hardy thinks about an exegetical question but also develops exegetical instincts as Hardy weighs options and draws out his conclusions. For instance, ch. 23 deals with בְּיוֹם in Gen 2:17, which leads to an important discussion on compound prepositions. Beginners so often think a faithful translation of לִפְנֵי should be “before the face[s] of.” Oy vey! When he applies the discussion to בְּיוֹם in Gen 2:17, he notes that “the more sound method of deciphering this preposition, and in turn the phrase, is to compare the usage patterns of בְּיוֹם” (p. 150), not just בְּ and יוֹם separately. He surveys the options and notes that, when the compound is followed by an infinitive, as is the case in Gen 2:17, it is often a temporal marker better understood as “when” rather than “in the day.” The exegetical payoff becomes obvious. God is not lying when Adam and Eve do not die immediately “in the day” they eat the fruit, nor do we need to suggest that it must be spiritual death that God was warning about in the verse. Instead, “when” (בְּיוֹם) is a “temporal expression provides the setting of the warning” (p. 150).A final praise for this book is its multipurpose nature. The volume in part serves as a review of aspects of first-year grammar that are difficult to remember. For instance, the qatal/wayyiqtol, yiqtol/wəqatal, or volitional/wəqatal clause level combinations are difficult to grasp and easy to forget, so his five chapters that review these patterns via clear explanation and illustration will prove useful to many. Exegetical Gems from Biblical Hebrew also in part serves as a select reference guide. For example, the chapter on כִּי offers nine categories for its function, along with examples from the biblical text. Furthermore, the book provides a useful segue for recognizing how grammar and syntax contribute to exegesis, helping a student gain exposure to categories and develop discernment in exegesis.Readers may find certain chapters more useful than others, but this is the case with any book. This is the rare volume in the area of Hebrew grammar that I can heartily recommend as being worth reading cover to cover. I could imagine the book functioning well in the following ways. It could be assigned reading for the final weeks of a 2nd-semester Hebrew class. Or one could recommend that students read this over the summer to review their grammar and prepare for syntax and exegesis. Or one might assign this to students in 2nd-year Hebrew as a supplementary text book. Or, for pastors and others who need a refresher or want to keep sharp in Hebrew, this book will prove useful. Hardy and Baker Academic are to be thanked for providing us with a gem of a book in Exegetical Gems from Biblical Hebrew.

154 SHOFAR Fall 1999 Vol. 18, No. I In focusing on the horrors of individual and collective violence in the biblical record, Schwartz thus misses the underlying economic and political dynamics of community formation and the positive functions ofnational identity. Sadly, that focus also obscures the wealth of biblical texts that point away from violence-texts that valorize peace and that anticipate eschatological if not temporal plenitude in both the natural and cultural realms. It is worth noting that many of the United Nations Declarations in support of economic and social equality, issued in the wake of the rebellion of various impoverished third-world countries against colonial domination, converge with biblical notions of peace and biblical concepts of love, power, and justice. Carol Meyers Department of Religion Duke University Theology of the Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy, by Walter Brueggemann. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997. 777 pp. $48.00. Walter Brueggemann's massive Theology ofthe Old Testament is an attempt to provide a new model for apprehending and articulating the Hebrew Bible's assertions concerning G-d that takes account ofthe new hermeneutical possibilities and realities posed by the contemporary postmodern interpretive situation. Brueggemann points to the emergence of "a major breakpoint in Western culture" (p. 60) in which the dominant modes of knowledge "that have too innocently yielded certitude" and the dominant modes of power "that have too readily granted control" are now giving way to a new postmodern situation which recognizes the pluralistic context of interpretation and the power of rhetoric to construe, generate, and evoke alternative realities. Whereas past theological interpretation ofthe Hebrew Bible employed objective, historical positivism to assert hegemony over the text of the Bible and those who read it, the postmodern situation calls for a Christian theological reading of the Bible that recognizes the diversity of its assertions concerning G-d and that the alternative understandings of its assertions are equally legitimate. In positing this new interpretive program, Brueggemann is particularly anxious to address the problem of Christianity's efforts at the supersession ofJudaism by various means, such as reducing the Hebrew Bible to easily controlled theological principles, subsuming the Hebrew Bible to the New Testament, historicizing it to such an extent that it is entirely dissociated from Rabbinic Judaism, etc. Instead, he attempts to offer a model in which various modes of Christian and Jewish readings ofthe Hebrew Bible can stand together in dialogue with the Bible and with each other. Book Reviews 155 A fundamental aspect of Brueggemann's program is that Old Testament theology must be concerned only with G-d (theos) and with speech (logos) about G-d. G-d cannot be comprehended in any preconceived categories, such as those ofChristian dogmatic theology, Hellenistic philosophy, historical event, etc. In order to come to grips with the Hebrew Bible's own assertions about G-d, the reader must reject questions ofhistoricity and ontology in order to ask "What is said?" rather than "What happened?" or "What is?" He employs the metaphor of testimony in a court oflaw as a vehicle to identify, analyze, and evaluate the Hebrew Bible's assertions about G-d. Brueggemann begins his "cross-examination" with discussion of the normative shape of Israel's utterance. He seeks to avoid the historical problems of von Rad's earliest credo statements and opts for examination ofstatements about G-d based upon the linguistic structure ofbiblical Hebrew, i.e., the full sentence is the unit oftestimony, YHWH is characteristically the subject of the active verb, and Israel or others are characteristically the objects of YHWH's actions. An extensive study of testimony about G-d in verbal sentences points to YHWH as the G-d who creates, makes promises, delivers, commands, and leads. A study ofadjectives applied to YHWH, with special attention to the "credo" in Exodus 34:6-7, points to YHWH's incomparability, relation to Israel, fidelity, and "profound contradiction that leaves open a harshness toward the beloved partner community" (p. 228). The nouns applied to YHWH emphasize the metaphorical quality of testimony about YHWH in relation to governance and sustenance, and assert YHWH's presence in all aspects oflsrael's life. Fundamentally, this normative testimony asserts YHWH's righteousness...

The article is devoted to the comparative analysis of a lexeme «evil spirit» in English and Russian languages. The object of research had chosen the phraseological units denoting «evil spirit». The novelty of research is a comparative analysis of phraseological units, defining «evil spirit», as well to identify the similarities and differences of phraseological units expressing the «evil spirit» at the semantic level.

Demons as a motif in New Testament narrative may express an allusion to the undifferentiated experience of evil and suffering, rather than to distinct, supernatural intelligences. While a strand of New Testament scholarship argues convincingly in this regard, the magisterium teaches that demons exist as disembodied persons. When evaluating requests for major exorcisms, the Church insists that demonic possession is distinguishable from natural ailments so as to associate demons with distinctly supernatural phenomena. This paper argues that, even if demons do exist as free-willed, intelligent persons, their agency may be insidiously intertwined with social and natural forms of evil so as to be experienced in the undifferentiated manner suggested by the biblical authors. The collusion of personal sin and with social sin, recognized in many contextual theologies and in Catholic Social Teaching, offers a broader insight into collusion between the forms of evil. If evil can defy clear categorization in this manner, this may point to the need for a holistic pastoral response. The paper includes a brief case analysis in relation to the tragic death of Anneliese Michel in Klingenberg, Germany, in 1976. This case exemplified an extremely dualistic approach to the pastoral care of a person claiming to be the subject of demonic attack, and influenced the Catholic bishops of Germany to recommend reform in the manner in which such situations are addressed. The case analysis is followed by a survey of New Testament exegesis on exorcism narratives, and a harmatological argument for an interplay between the forms of evil.

The article discusses the possession and exorcism of sixteen-year-old Nicole Obry (1565-1566). It offers a three-layer interpretation of the case and argues that a combination of psychological, political, and gender issues brought about the woman's possession. I first suggest that possession by either good or evil spirits was a culturally recognized syndrome that allowed laypeople, mostly women, to express religious concern in a society that did not permit laywomen to address spiritual issues in more normative ways. Indeed, in her own perception prior to the clerical intervention, Nicole regarded herself as a visionary and not as a demoniac.The complexity of spirit possession as a psychological and psychopathological behavior also necessitates a personal (sub)conscious motivation, and I suggest that metaphors of penetration and possessions were directly related to Nicole's personal experiences and anxieties as a young woman.The social/cultural and the personal contexts are then connected to the religious tensions in early modern northern France. These events increased Nicole's personal anxieties and legitimated her initiative to address religious matters.

Reviewed by: Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England: Contemporary Texts and Their Cultural Contexts Moshe Sluhovsky Philip C. Almond Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England: Contemporary Texts and their Cultural Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Pp. x + 405. Philip Almond renders historians of early modern England an important service. This book offers readers modernized versions of nine pamphlets published in England between 1574 and 1650 addressing different aspects of the contemporary interest in diabolic possession and exorcism. The documents range from naive and pseudostraightforward descriptions of events to theological sermons masquerading as reportages. They present Catholic, Anglican, and Puritan points of view, and each text defends a unique theological perspective on the possibility, causes, authenticity, and unfolding of the interaction between this world and the world of the beyond. Thanks to this collection and to three recent editions of early modern English possession tales—Michael MacDonald’s Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London (1991), F. W. Brownlow’s Shakespeare, Harsnett, and the Devils of Denham (1993), and James A. Sharpe’s The Bewitching of Anne Gunter (1999)—scholars and students of the religious history of England now have access to a significant body of primary sources available in modern and accessible editions. Almond rightly points out that the “symptoms of possession by evil spirits were sufficiently common to make the diagnosis possible” (p. i), and that relatives and neighbors of allegedly possessed people were the first to suspect the supernatural causality of the strange behaviors that demoniacs presented. They were joined by and sought advice and cure from physicians, astrologers, cunning men and women, and curates. The familiarity with the bodily manifestations and the cultural script of possession did not, however, mean consensus. Both lay individuals and professionals—theologians and physicians—debated all the aspects of possession and exorcism. In general, Catholics maintained the traditional view of their church, according to which diabolic possession was a preternatural occurrence and ordained exorcists had unique powers to expel demons. Anglicans did not deny the possibility of diabolic possession, but were likely to diagnose specific cases as resulting from natural rather than supernatural afflictions. Puritans saw in possession an eschatological sign, and believed in communal means of exorcism—fasting and [End Page 242] prayers by the believers, rather than liturgical adjurations by exorcists, were their proposed remedies. But these generalizations should not lead us to equate the Anglican position with a more scientific or medical approach, or to view the Catholics as more traditional and “superstitious.” Each religious denomination had its share of skeptics, and Catholic, Anglicans, and Puritans alike made use of dramatic possessions and exorcisms to prove the truth of their theological interpretation of scripture. In early modern England, natural and supernatural causalities did not exclude one another; natural affliction could be understood as deriving from satanic intervention; and even an admission of fraud by a would-be demoniac could be found to be of diabolic origins and to reinforce a religious truth. Most of Almond’s documents describe Puritan cases of possession and exorcisms, or the exposure of Puritan impostors. Unfortunately, Almond does not explain in his introduction what criteria he used to choose the texts that found their way into his collection, and whether they reflect the over one hundred possessed persons he had found in contemporary documents. The Anglicans in his collection are presented more often as unveiling Catholic and Puritan frauds and simulations than as practitioners of the cultural resource of possession and exorcism. But is this an accurate reflection of the early modern reality? Could we accept Almond’s conclusion that they “drove an Anglican wedge of secularism between papists and Puritans” (p. 7), or is that a result of Almond’s selection? Furthermore, should we view Anglican skepticism as a “secular” tendency, or rather as a strategy to combat the successes of Puritan and Catholic exorcisms? After all, Anglican alleged secularism in such matters did not include the cessation of witch accusations or of the belief in the power of Satan. The celebrated 1598 case of the exposure of William Sommers as a fraud and the conviction of the Puritan exorcist John Darrell for teaching Sommers how to counterfeit possession...

In the African ministry context, accusations of demon possession are commonplace. It would appear that every strange, bizarre, or abnormal form of behavior is attributed to demon possession. Unfortunately, in many cases there is a very thin line between occurrences of mental disorder and demonization. This is because the symptoms in several instances are quite similar, and the precursors may be quite complex. For these reasons, another article in this issue sought to address the issue of discerning whether certain conditions were caused by mental disorders or demonization. In addition, the predisposition to regard every unexplained behavior as having a demonic origin was also addressed in this issue and described “the expanded middle.” However, one debate that has continued for decades and which is the concern of this chapter is, Can Christians be possessed by evil spirits?

What marks a yes/no question as a question in biblical Hebrew? In the vast majority of cases, the answer to this question is the ה־ interrogative. However, there are several clear cases of polar interrogatives without clause initial ה־ that must have some other linguistic marker of interrogative modality. The present article examines possible syntactic and prosodic markers in these clauses and compares their grammatical features with polar interrogatives in the book of Genesis that have the ה־ interrogative. After establishing the grammatical patterns of polar interrogatives with prefixed ה־, I examine the cases without interrogative ה־ and argue that while shifts in word order do not correspond to the ways in which polar interrogatives are marked, prosodic shifts in intonation—largely inaccessible to modern readers—must have produced the interrogative sense. This raises the issue of whether some clauses that are typically understood as declaratives might be construed as questions when the context allows for both possibilities. I also find that although syntactic shifts do not produce interrogatives, word order does relate to the focus of questions, indicating the questioned topic.

The dative of ethic or dativus ethicus is a grammatical feature that occurs regularly in Biblical Hebrew as well as in Classical Syriac. Several studies have been undertaken to understand and define the DE’s grammatical character, yet there is still no consensus among researchers as to its semantic import. Contributing to this subject of research, the present paper brings into dialogue some of the previous findings, re-examines some instances where the dativus ethicus occurs in the relevant literature, and thus attempts to provide further insights on its semantic references. A further unique aspect of the present research is an attempt to trace common characteristics in the DE’s use between the corpora of Biblical Hebrew and Classical Syriac. By undertaking this study in both these languages, it is postulated that there are similarities or comparable differences in their use of the feature. This study is carried out by way of bringing into dialogue the past researches on the subject, as well as re-examining the semantic references of the feature in contexts culled from relevant literature. Particular attention in these re-examinations is given to the role players involved in such contexts. The study concludes that the DE feature profiles an aspect of separation and /or motion by a theme, away from a point of interest towards a new one.

This paper is an inquiry into demon possession, exorcism and psychopathology. In the history of the belief in demon possession and the practice of exorcism, belief in demons, evil and good spirits, possession, etc have always been part of human belief systems. Many church fathers testify that exorcism was practised in the various periods of Church History. The Catholic Church and the various Orthodox traditions advocate exorcism. However, it is the rationalism and the emergence of the scientific view of the world that questioned the belief in the demonic. However, the 20th and 21st century has seen a resurgence of these beliefs and practices particularly among Christians. Since exorcism played an important role in the ministry of Jesus and his disciples, it should have an integral part in the ministry of the Christian Church as well. The paper presents some tentative guidelines as to how the reality that there are two distinct conditions must be incorporated into the pastoral ministry and the missional approach of the contemporary church. Discernment and diagnosis is important in cross-cultural mission situations.