Glass Travels: How Chinese Craftsmanship Transformed English Glass from Material to Artwork

Jérôme Samuel, Institut national des Langues et Civilisations orientales, Paris Naissances et renaissance de la peinture sous verre à Java This paper deals with reverse glass painting as a Javanese popular art, mainly in Central Java and in the Cirebon area. First, the author examines the foreign roots of this art (China, Japan, Europe and the Middle East) and the conditions which facilitated its spread in Java during the first decades of the XX th century. He argues that Islam played a significant role, through a wide range of pious pictures, as well as the increasing accessibility of glass as a material for paintings. Reverse glass painting reached a peak during the 1930s, which coincides with the first significant scientific paper devoted to that popular art. The second part of this paper focuses on recent developments of reverse glass painting. Since the late seventies, it seems to be out of favour in popular Java, but the antiquarians and the cultural establishment have shown some interest for it. Nowadays, reverse glass painting is still alive but it has lost most of its traditional features.

The subject of the paper – a reverse glass painting (Hinterglasmalerei) – came to its current owner from a well-known private collection in Budapest. Painted on a 2 mm thick glass plate measuring 300 × 350 mm, silhouettes of figures with subtly painted details on their costumes are shown with scratched metal foil decoration in the background. The date of making around 1790 is clearly determined by the depicted scene in addition to the neo-classical late baroque style of the rendering. The Hungarian style clothing of the figures, their badges and the Hungarian coat of arms on the breast of the Habsburg eagle together with the inscriptions (“Fidelis Pannia”, “Ego Fidelis Natio Hungarica”) provide first-hand clues for interpretation. From among the rulers of the age, the “F II” monogram seen at two places must refer to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Bohemia, who ascended the Hungarian throne as Francis I in 1792. The young man standing on the right is to be identified with him on account of the Order of the Golden Fleece and the Hungarian Royal Order of St Stephen worn on his attire. The young man sitting on left must then be the Hungarian palatine Alexander Leopold. The elderly high priest standing behind him also wearing the decorations of the grand cross of the Order of St Stephen is archbishop of Esztergom Count József Batthyány. The young female figure in Hungarian style costume is the queen, Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies. The picture shows the most important figures of the compromise arrived at during the Diet of 1792 held in the ancient Hungarian capital Buda. In contradistinction to the legacy of the late Joseph II (died 1790) who had imposed reforms, this political settlement promised to restore the ancient constitution of the Hungarian nobility in return for an offer of taxes and recruits needed for the Habsburgs’ French wars. This agreement was particularly well received by the rural Hungarian nobility. The choice of the language for the inscriptions – Latin – also confirms this as a conserving cultural symbol. The person who ordered the picture and first owned it must be sought in this social stratum. The date of making must be connected to the Diet of 1792, for the significance of the compromise was soon overshadowed by the events of the French wars and other domestic political changes, so the subject of the picture had no topical significance in the mid-1790s any more. The glass picture was certainly made in Vienna. This technique was not practiced in Hungary; Vienna was a centre of silhouette painting at that time. Silhouettes already appeared painted on glass, alloyed with other techniques. The pictorial devices of the picture also point towards Vienna, reminding one of the widely disseminated silhouette scenes of Johann Hieronymus Löschenkohl (Elberfeld, 1753 – Vienna, 1807). In this circle one can find a glass painter of Linz, Ignaz Pfeilhauer (Linz, 1765 – Linz, 1843), who also worked in Vienna and several of whose signed pictures are known by research. Outstanding among them are a signed picture dated 1796 showing the chamber orchestra of the Linz civil guard in green uniform and an unidentified family scene at the breakfast table, a reverse glass painting from 1794. After a comparison with further pictures by him, it can be concluded that the Budapest glass painting displays the same peculiarities: in the group scenes set in interiors the somewhat rigidly rendered silhouette figures appear to be floating, and the lines of the floor and the symmetrically placed pieces of furniture refuse to proceed towards a vanishing point, running counter to the rules of perspective. The body and hand postures of the conversing silhouette figures with inner details also drawn in gold and other colours are similar in all paintings concerned. This is complemented with techniques of colorfully painted and scratched metal foil, canvas and paper applications. On the basis of all this the Budapest reverse glass painting may be defined as the earliest known work of Ignaz Pfeilhauer.

Reverse glass painting arrived in Senegal in the early twentieth century, essentially as a religious art form, which helped to disseminate Islam in Senegal. Glass painting also became a useful visual vehicle in the national struggle against French colonial domination. Initially, it was practiced by amateur painters for an urban clientele. Due to high demand, amateur painters became professional practitioners of reverse glass painting. A third generation of artists, trained at the school of fine art in Dakar, incorporated the practice of reverse glass painting into other modern artistic techniques and approaches. Today the imagery of reverse glass painting is no longer exclusively religious and covers a wide range of themes. It has become one of the most popular forms of artistic expression in Senegal, which is highly appreciated by both the Senegalese as well as foreigners. It merits scholarly interest and analysis.

This work highlights the rediscovery of the technique of reverse glass painting by the artists of the “Blaue Reiter” collective in the early 20th-century and focusses particularly on the role of Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944). Kandinsky created more than 70 reverse paintings on glass and showed several of them in exhibitions together with paintings on canvas and cardboard, implying a coequal importance of these techniques. Four of his early (1911–1914) reverse glass paintings (Auferstehung, Allerheiligen II, Rudern, Apokalyptischer Reiter II) were selected for investigation and their iconography, painting techniques and painting materials were examined. Two paintings were executed on so-called cathedral glass, revealing a “hammered surface”, whereas Kandinsky used a corrugated glass panel for Rudern. A multi-analytical, non-invasive approach [X-ray fluorescence (XRF), diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), VIS spectroscopy (VIS), Raman spectroscopy] was taken to identify the pigments and classify the binding media. The results reveal a broad palette of materials. Several pigments like lead white, zinc white, strontium yellow, Prussian blue, viridian, cadmium yellow, ultramarine blue, cinnabar and carbon black were found in most of the four paintings. The use of the rare synthetic organic pigments PR60 and PB52 is discussed. In two works of art, cadmium carbonate is associated with cadmium yellow. The identification of aluminium foil along with tin foils in Rudern indicates an early use of this material for reverse glass paintings.

This article focuses on the historical context, present condition, technique and materials of the reverse glass paintings by William Nicholson that were commissioned in 1913 by Edward Knoblock for his apartment in the Palais Royale, Paris, France. There are few detailed technical studies of twentieth‐century reverse glass painting, despite the technique appearing in the work of major artists such as Picasso, Pollock and Duchamp. The most notable exponents of the technique are Kandinsky, Klee and other members of Der Blaue Reiter (Lee Ward 1978). In the case of the reverse‐painted panels by Nicholson, it was essential to carry out an investigation of the materials and techniques employed in the execution of the panels to inform future conservation decisions and to evaluate different methods of redisplay. Both the priming and binding media were analysed to establish their character. Pigments used by Nicholson were also identified. This information, in turn, made a significant contribution to the exceedingly sparse technical information about Nicholson's work. A replica panel was made to gain an empirical understanding of Nicholson's working technique and material choice. It was also important to establish the chronology of the panels’ locations while they were still in Knoblock's possession. This helped to account for the stark differences in condition of separate panel sets and confirmed a link to a similar, now privately owned, panel set that had been thought to be by Nicholson. This study also contributes to our understanding of the methods used to create reverse glass paintings, and provides essential information from which to make treatment decisions.

The Reverse Glass Painting Portrait of a Lady of the Qing Dynasty collected by the ChinaNational Museum of Women and Children originates from an oil painting titled Portrait of The Fragrant Imperial Concubine in Court Attire. This article analyzes the content depicted in the Portrait of the Fragrant Imperial Concubine in Court Attire and argues that it has no relation to the painting which mentioned above. After listing nine other highly similar series works, the article asserts that the late Qing Dynasty oil painting Fourth Concubine of He Xing in Hong Kong painted by Guan Xiaocun marks the beginning of the entire series. As the only reverse glass painting in the entire series, the Reverse Glass Painting Portrait of a Lady of the Qing Dynasty illustrated the final days of the export Chinese reverse glass paintings in the 19th century, making it even more precious.

A combination of portable non-invasive techniques to study on reverse glass paintings at Mistretta museum

Capabilities and limitations of handheld Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (DRIFTS) for the analysis of colourants and binders in 20th-century reverse paintings on glass

This article introduces the reverse glass paintings of Haryadi Suadi. Originating from Cirebon and educated at ITB, Haryadi Suadi discovered reverse glass painting in the mid-1970 thanks to a traditional glass painter named Rastika. Haryadi then devoted most of his work to this art, which used to be very popular in Java between the 1920s and the 1960s. Harydi Suadi draws inspiration from Cirebonese traditions, both in the themes he illustrates and by the use of specific idioms ; nevertheless, he achieved a considerable renewal of this tradition. The work on glass of Haryadi Suadi is unique : he does not follow the way of Cirebonese traditional reverse glass painters, nor does he have disciples in any Indonesian painting academy. Haryadi also meet with little success in the Indonesian contemporary art market. We conclude by presenting the main sources of inspiration of Haryadi through twelve works : the Chinese world, religion and popular beliefs (Islam, Javanese esoterism, mysticism), and the Western tradition shown in a few figurative or abstract examples.

The interdisciplinary study of ancient materials has become an increasingly common strategy, mainly because it has proved to be a highly rewarding approach to studying the age, provenance and production of archaeological objects. The results of such an approach sometimes also provide answers to questions relating not only to socio-cultural, economic or technological developments in a particular region or period (trade, innovation, production etc.), but also the conservation of the materials or artefacts in question. A number of analytical methods, ranging from microscopic to elementary analyses, have been successfully applied to determine the nature of materials and technologies used in the production, as well as to identify the provenance of ancient glass. As far as window glass and stained glass is concerned, the study of architectural context and art history – as well as the technological characteristics of materials – has proved to be most helpful in determining history, production and artistic importance of the objects under study. This paper discusses some of the multidisciplinary studies that the Vitrocentre Romont has conducted on early medieval window glass, stained glass and reverse glass paintings and illustrates the potential of a holistic approach in solving questions about materials, techniques, window design and conservation. It also addresses the limitations of the approach, which are often related to finding appropriate (i.e. non-destructive and possibly portable) methods for the analysis of sometimes extremely fragile stained glass windows.

Reverse Glass Paintings from Gujarat in a Private Canadian Collection: Documents of British India

This work presents a technical investigation of two Chinese reverse glass paintings from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A multi-analytical, non-invasive approach (X-ray fluorescence (XRF), diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS), Raman spectroscopy) was used to identify the pigments and classify the binding media. The results reveal a combined use of traditional Chinese and imported European materials. Several pigments like cinnabar, lead white, orpiment, carbon black and copper-arsenic green (probably emerald green) were found in both paintings; red lead, artificial ultramarine blue, Prussian blue and ochre appear in at least one of the paintings. The proof of limewash (calcite and small amounts of portlandite) as a backing layer in Yingying and Hongniang indicates that clamshell white was also used for reverse glass paintings. Drying oil was classified as a binding media in most areas of both paintings. However, the orange background of The Archer yielded prominent bands of both proteinaceous and fatty binder.

Disclosing glittering and sparkling effects in 20th-century reverse glass paintings: a study of metallic pigments and metal foils by means of in situ XRF and DRIFTS analysis

Cantonese trade painters catered to diverse global markets in the early nineteenth century. American consumers of Chinese reverse glass paintings acquired works that were popular throughout the British Empire, but also commissioned works that spoke to their status as a newly independent nation. This article considers a group of Chinese reverse glass paintings with early American provenances and themes through selections from the collection of the Peabody Essex Museum, one of the United States' earliest museums.

Two Theravada Buddhist temples in Laos and Thailand containing exemplary and significant artworks, which were in one case intentionally destroyed and in the other degraded by seismic events, were archived by us and others periodically in still and video formats. The lost interior murals were successfully replicated inside the new replacement structure at their original size, coloration, and general layout. In the second case, those most-damaged reverse glass paintings (RGPs) —a medium not lending itself to attempted repairing of the originals— were reproduced and reinstalled using traditional techniques with varying levels of success; and also completely digitally restored by first using image editing software and then were inkjet-printed on the backs of new glass panes. One entire wall of the in-situ RGP array was re-created at its actual size for a museum exhibition in the United States.