Geographical Variation in Songs of Bachman’s Sparrow (Peucaea aestivalis)

Characterizing population structure and genetic differentiation can inform the management of imperiled species and the relative influences of ecological and evolutionary factors on species evolution. One trait that is expected to influence the amount of population structure a species exhibits is vagility, or the ability to move across the landscape. Species with higher vagility may be more likely to disperse, potentially facilitating gene flow among populations and limiting population structure. My dissertation focuses on characterizing population structure in 2 imperiled sparrows that are both largely nonmigratory with broad distributions in eastern North America: Seaside Sparrow (Ammospiza maritima) and Bachman’s Sparrow (Peucaea aestivalis). Seaside Sparrow is restricted to tidal saltmarsh habitat that is temporally and spatially more stable than the fire-mediated pine savannas that Bachman’s Sparrow is closely associated with. As a result of these habitat differences these sparrows likely have differing vagility and exhibit different patterns of population structure. First, I describe the population structure of Seaside Sparrow and identify potential distinct population segments to inform future management of the species. Through comprehensive sampling of several thousand single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 272 individuals from 24 sites across the species distribution, I identify 5 to 7 possible distinct population segments (Chapter 2). In the remainder of my dissertation, I focus on Bachman’s Sparrow and the population genetics and conservation implications of recent changes to its distribution. Through systematic review of several thousand occurrence records from historical field observations, natural history collections, and eBird I confirm that Bachman’s Sparrow experienced a rapid range expansion and subsequent retraction since the mid-1800s (Chapter 4). Finally, I infer population structure before, during, and immediately following the range expansion and modern time using approximately 1,000 SNPs sampled from 144 museum samples and 285 modern samples to determine if panmixia arose in Bachman’s Sparrow during the range shifts. I show that high gene flow is characteristic of Bachman’s Sparrow and not the result of recent range shift, but that recent anthropogenic landscape change results in barriers to dispersal that promote differentiation even in this highly vagile bird.

North American grassland birds show long-term population declines that generally exceed the declines of other bird groups. Efforts to conserve grassland birds require knowledge of ecological and habitat requirements during both the breeding and nonbreeding periods of annual life cycles. Nonbreeding habitat associations may affect survival and the acquisition of resources needed for migration and breeding. We focused on the winter habitat associations of a suite of co-occurring grassland sparrows in the dry prairie of south-central Florida, an understudied region within the wintering range of Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum pratensis) and Henslow's Sparrows (A. henslowii). During the nonbreeding winter months, these two migratory sparrows commingle with resident Bachman's Sparrows (Peucaea aestivalis) and federally endangered Florida Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus). We investigated sparrow habitat associations within two defined plant communities of the dry prai...

Prophylactic Use of Factor IX Concentrate in a Jehovah's Witness Patient

In this paper, we present a detailed analysis of the light variation of KIC 5623923 using high-precision time-series data from the Kepler mission. The analysis reveals this target is an eclipsing binary system with δ Scuti-type pulsations from the primary component, rather than from the secondary as previously reported. The frequency analysis of three short-cadence data reveals 41 significant frequencies, including the orbital frequency ( f orb = 0.827198 day −1 ) due to orbital motion from the binary system and the pulsational frequencies. Most of the pulsational signal lies in the frequency range of 20–32 day −1 , with amplitude between 0.3 and 8.8 mmag, in which seven peaks are identified as “independent” modes. The strongest one ( f 3 = 28.499399 day −1 ) likely corresponds to a high-order radial mode. In other peaks ( f 7 , f 10 , and f 18 ), several pairs of multiplet structures centered on them are found. The fitting of spectral energy distribution using the collected photometry measurement of multiple bands reveals the effective temperatures of the primary and secondary components as 834 8 − 225 + 230 K and 475 3 − 229 + 237 K, respectively, which place the primary star in the classical pulsating instability zone. The characteristic light-curve morphology and short orbital period are consistent with a tidally locked system. Based on the characteristics of amplitude spectra of pulsating stars in close binaries, the analysis of the multiplet structures reveals that three independent frequencies (i.e., f 7 , f 10 , and f 18 ) correspond to nonradial modes with l = 2, while the associated sidelobes are produced by the orbital motion. We highlight the potential of this method in future studies of pulsating binary stars.

Caveolin-1 is the primary structural component of endothelial caveolae that is essential for transcellular trafficking of albumin and is also a critical scaffolding protein that regulates the activity of signaling molecules in caveolae. Phosphorylation of caveolin-1 plays a fundamental role in the mechanism of oxidant-induced vascular hyper permeability. However, the regulatory mechanism of caveolin-1 phosphorylation remains unclear. Here we identify a previously unexpected role for AMPK in inhibition of caveolin-1 phosphorylation under oxidative stress. A pharmacological activator of AMPK, 5-amino-4-imidazole carboxamide riboside (AICAR), inhibited oxidative stress-induced phosphorylation of both caveolin-1 and c-Abl, which is the major kinase of caveolin-1, and endocytosis of albumin in human umbilical vein endothelial cell. These effects were abolished by treatment with two specific inhibitors of AICAR, dipyridamole, and 5-iodotubericidin. Consistently, knockdown of the catalytic AMPKα subunit by siRNA abolished the inhibitory effect of AICAR on oxidant-induced phosphorylation of both caveolin-1 and c-Abl. Pretreatment with specific c-Abl inhibitor, imatinib mesylate, and knock down of c-Abl significantly decreased the caveolin-1 phosphorylation after H2O2 exposure and abolished the inhibitory effect of AICAR on the caveolin-1 phosphorylation. Interestingly, knockdown of Prdx-1, an antioxidant enzyme associated with c-Abl, increased phosphorylation of both caveolin-1 and c-Abl and abolished the inhibitory effect of AICAR on the caveolin-1 phosphorylation. Furthermore, co-immunoprecipitation experiment showed that AICAR suppressed the oxidant-induced dissociation between c-Abl and Prdx1. Overall, our results suggest that activation of AMPK inhibits oxidative stress-induced caveolin-1 phosphorylation and endocytosis, and this effect is mediated in part by stabilizing the interaction between c-Abl and Prdx-1.

Thirty six (36) genotypes (eight parents and 28 F1 diallel crosses) were grown in randomized complete block design with two replicates during 2006 at Mandura, North western Ethiopia. The experiment was executed to study the inheritance of two primary yield component traits: number of seeds per pod and 1000 seed weight. Statistical significant difference was observed between genotypes, parents and crosses for the traits considered. The mean square due to general combining ability was significant for the two traits. However, specific combining ability mean square was significant only for number of seeds per pod. Thus, both additive and non-additive types of gene actions were important in the inheritance of number of seeds per pod. Significant b1 component was obtained for number of seeds per pod. The b2 and b3 components however, were insignificant, suggesting the absence of gene asymmetry. From Wr/Vr graph, inheritance of seeds per pod was governed by partial dominance with additive gene action. Key words: Diallel crosses, general combining ability, Phaseolus vulgaris L., specific combining ability.

Observation on promoting resuscitation in the patients with coma of acute carbon monoxide poisoning by acupuncture combined with hyperbaric oxygen

Using the Hadley Center HadISST dataset and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis dataset over the winters (December–February) from 1948 to 2014, this paper investigates the connections between the first two primary components of the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the North Pacific and the stratospheric sudden warmings (SSWs) in the Northern Hemisphere winter. The results show that the winter SSW duration is more correlated to the second primary component (PC2) than the first primary component (PC1). The SSW event occurs more frequently and the winter SSW duration is longer during the positive phases of PC2 than the negative phases of PC2. The analysis also reveals that there are 10–20 year oscillations in the SSW duration after 1980, which are related to the decadal variation of PC2. The positive phases of PC2 are marked by more positive Pacific–North America (PNA) and western Pacific (WP) teleconnections in the upper troposphere. Consequently, wavenumber-1 planetary waves in the upper troposphere are strengthened and the upward Eliassen–Palm fluxes (EP fluxes) in the extratropical stratosphere are enhanced. The enhanced upward EP fluxes into the stratosphere result in SSWs persisting longer. The negative phase of PC2 has the opposite effect on the SSW duration to the positive phase of PC2. Although the SST anomalies associated with PC2 are mainly driven by the atmosphere, our model simulations show that SST anomalies of PC2 are capable of producing a feedback on the PNA and the WP and modulating the variability of SSWs.

The OSS 1 and Spacelab 2 missions found intense broadband waves in the near vicinity of the space shuttle. This paper contains a detailed observational characterization and theoretical investigation of the plasma waves observed within about 10 m of the space shuttle during the XPOP roll period of the Spacelab 2 mission. High wave levels are found from 31 Hz to 10 kHz (near the lower hybrid frequency). Above 10 kHz the wave levels decrease with frequency, reaching the background level near 56 kHz. The frequency distribution of wave electric fields is best interpreted in terms of three components below about 10 kHz and a high‐frequency tail. The primary component is a fairly uniform, high level of waves covering the frequency range from 31 Hz to 10 kHz. The two superposed components in this frequency range have electric fields of order twice the uniform level. The second component corresponds to a low‐frequency peak in the range 100–178 Hz. The third component is found near, and follows the trend of, the lower hybrid frequency. No evidence is found for a high‐frequency component localized above about 10 kHz. The waves show a pronounced amplitude and frequency variation with the quantity V∥/VT which measures the angle between the ionospheric magnetic field and the shuttle's velocity vector. Very low wave levels and small frequency extents are observed when V∥/VT ∼ 1 and the shuttle is moving primarily along the magnetic field. This implies that the waves are probably driven by water pickup ions. Observations of the waves below about 20 kHz during the free‐flight mission imply that the near‐zone waves have wave vectors oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field. The nulls observed in the wave data as the PDP spacecraft moves through the orbiter's wake imply that wavenumber increases with wave frequency. Hwang et al.'s theory for the near‐zone waves is shown to be inconsistent with the frequency distribution and wave vector orientations of the observed waves. A new theory involving Doppler‐shifted lower hybrid waves driven by beamlike distributions of water ions near the space shuttle is developed using linear theory. This linear theory can explain generation of waves with (1) frequencies ranging from near zero frequency to the lower hybrid frequency, (2) wave vectors essentially perpendicular to the magnetic field, (3) wavenumbers increasing with wave frequency, and (4) wavelengths observable by the PDP antenna. These characteristics are all consistent with the observed properties of the waves, thereby providing strong support for the theory. In addition, the theory permits two qualitative explanations for the V∥/VT effect. However, the linear theory cannot explain the details of the observed frequency spectrum of the waves. Strong, qualitative arguments that the effects of spatial inhomogeneity and nonlinear effects should modify the predicted linear spectrum are presented. In particular, the observed ratio of wave energy to thermal plasma energy is of order 10−5, sufficient for nonlinear and strong turbulence effects to be potentially important. Lastly, the observed V∥/VT effect implies optimum conditions for use of the space shuttle as a base for observing plasma waves generated by active experiments or natural ionospheric waves. Ideally, the shuttle's orbit should be designed so that V∥/VT exceeds about 0.7, thereby favoring polar orbits and arguing against equatorial orbits. Alternatively, free‐flying experiments should be used.

The quality of the carrier is critical in influencing microbial load and shelf life of biofertilizers. Cassava peels are abundant and have little economic value, making them ideal for use as biofertilizer carrier materials. The carrier material supported the growth of the test organism, thus suggesting the presence of nutrients and absence of toxicity. During isolation and culturing of bacteria, three (3) grams of soil sample was measured and diluted with 100ml of distilled water, and mixed well to get soil suspension. Ten (10) ml of the soil suspension was poured in the first test tube and shake well, 1ml of the first test tube was transferred into the second test tube containing nine (9) ml of sterile distilled water aseptically to get dilution. One (1)ml of the suspension from the second test-tube was transferred to third test tube also containing 9ml of sterile distilled water aseptically, 1ml of the soil suspension was transferred from the third test tube to the fourth test tube,1ml of the soil suspension was transferred from the fourth test tube was transferred to the fifth test tube,1ml of the soil suspension from the fifth soil suspension was also transferred to the sixth test tube, another 1ml from the sixth soil suspension was also transferred to seventh test tube aseptically. Soil sample from test tube 4, 5, and 6 was inoculated in yeast extract media and was incubated for 24 hours. The result shows that at 2DAP, 3DAP, 4DAP, 5DAP, AND 6DAP there is statistical significant difference between the treatment and control but at 7DAP, 8DAP, 9DAP AND 10DAP there is no statistical significant difference between the treatment and control but also at 11DAP there is statistical significant difference between the treatment and the control and at 10DAG, 12DAG, 14DAG, 16DAG, 18DAG, AND 20DAG there is no statistical significant difference between the treatment and control but at 22DAG there is statistical significant difference between the treatment and control at 24DAG there is no statistical significant difference between the treatment and the control. And at 26DAG there is statistical significant difference between the treatment and the control but also at 28DAG there is no statistical significant difference between the treatment and the control using fisher’s least significant difference test. Biofertilizer is a relevant alternative for disposal of this waste and even enables the act of converting wastes to wealth.

This study is aimed at exploring the motivated learning strategies and cognitive styles among a sample of UAE high school students. To achieve the objectives of the study, a sample consisted of 800 male and female students were chosen and the motivated learning strategies scale and the cognitive styles scale were validated and administered to the students. Results of the study showed that the task values motivated learning strategy ranked first followed by test-anxiety, self-efficacy, and self regulation strategies in order. Statistical significant differences in scores of test-anxiety and self-regulation motivated learning strategies based on gender was found and in favor of female students. Also, statistical differences in all motivated learning strategies were found based on various academic streams and in favor of scientific stream. No statistical significant differences in motivated learning strategies were found based on various school grades. Results also showed that students have a tendency to be field-independent. Statistical differences in field-independent cognitive style were found in favor of male students, science stream, and 10 th grade students. Also, statistical differences in field-dependent cognitive style were found in favor of female students, arts strea m, and 11 th grade

BackgroundFemale genital mutilation (FGM) is a common traditional practice in developing nations including Ethiopia. It poses complex and serious long-term health risks for women and girls and can lead to death. In Ethiopia, the geographic distribution and factors associated with FGM practices are poorly understood. Therefore, we assessed the spatial distribution and factors associated with FGM among reproductive age women in the country.MethodWe used population based national representative surveys. Data from two (2000 and 2005) Ethiopian demographic and health surveys (EDHS) were used in this analysis. Briefly, EDHS used a stratified, two-stage cluster sampling design. A total of 15,367 (from EDHS 2000) and 14,070 (from EDHS 2005) women of reproductive age (15–49 years) were included in the analysis. Three outcome variables were used (prevalence of FGM among women, prevalence of FGM among daughters and support for the continuation of FGM). The data were weighted and descriptive statistics (percentage change), bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were carried out. Multicollinearity of variables was assessed using variance inflation factors (VIF) with a reference value of 10 before interpreting the final output. The geographic variation and clustering of weighted FGM prevalence were analyzed and visualized on maps using ArcGIS. Z-scores were used to assess the statistical difference of geographic clustering of FGM prevalence spots.ResultThe trend of FGM weighted prevalence has been decreasing. Being wealthy, Muslim and in higher age categories are associated with increased odds of FGM among women. Similarly, daughters from Muslim women have increased odds of experiencing FGM. Women in the higher age categories have increased odds of having daughters who experience FGM. The odds of FGM among daughters decrease with increased maternal education. Mass media exposure, being wealthy and higher paternal and maternal education are associated with decreased odds of women’s support of FGM continuation. FGM prevalence and geographic clustering showed variation across regions in Ethiopia.ConclusionIndividual, economic, socio-demographic, religious and cultural factors played major roles in the existing practice and continuation of FGM. The significant geographic clustering of FGM was observed across regions in Ethiopia. Therefore, targeted and integrated interventions involving religious leaders in high FGM prevalence spot clusters and addressing the socio-economic and geographic inequalities are recommended to eliminate FGM.

Introduction Inflammation in patients with ESRD undergoing HD is an increasing concern for physicians and has been related to increase the rates of morbidity and mortality. Interestingly, patients with ESRD in conventional HD have frequent infections and a suboptimal response to vaccines; this is probably related to an immune inflammatory disorder associated either with uremia and/or nutritional status. In addition to CRP, which seems to be the most important marker for the identification and control of inflammation in clinical practice, many other markers are also available for the evaluation of inflammatory state. Decreased renal clearance clearly accounts for higher levels of circulating cytokines, although increased production has also been described. Hemodiafiltration has been shown to improve cardio-protection and the immunologic system and reduces infection and mortality compared with conventional HD. A recent study showed that hemodiafiltration compared with conventional HD reduced the risk of mortality in ESRD patients. Analysis of pooled individual participant data from randomized controlled trials has shown survival benefits of high volume-HDF on all-cause mortality and especially cardiovascular mortality rate. The mechanisms that lead to improved outcomes are not clear, but it is thought that HDF may reduce the production of inflammatory mediators through the use of biocompatible dialysers and ultrapure dialysate and also improve clearance of larger molecular weight substances, many of which are associated with oxidative stress, inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Objective The aim of this study is to detect, prospectively, the effect of 3 months dialysis with Hemodiafiltration on inflammatory and nutritional biomarkers in comparison to conventional dialysis with high flux dialyzer in stable HD patients. Patients and methods 30 adults aged 20-75 years who were selected from Dialysis Unit, Kobary El-Kobba Military Hospital. 30 male patients known to have chronic kidney disease and are on dialysis with high flux dialyzer more than 3 months were divided into 2 groups:15 Patients are shifted to be on dialysis with HDF and 15 Patients are continued to be on Regular Hemodialysis with high flux dialyzer. Full medical history and clinical examination. Anthropometric measurements and Laboratory investigations including Complete Blood Picture (WBCs, platelets, Hb), Coagulation profile PT, PTT&INR, Liver function tests (ALT, AST, T. Bilirubin and S. Albumin), Lipid profile (Triglycerides, total cholesterol, VLDL), S. creatinine, BUN, Na, K, Uric acid, Total Proteins, Serum Calcium, Serum Phosphorus, PTH, Serum ferritin, High sensitivity CRP (Enzyme- Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)) and IL6 (ELISA). Results The current study was conducted on 30 patients with chronic kidney disease on regular dialysis. The patients were divided into two groups A representing patients on hemodiafiltration (n = 15) and group B representing patients on dialysis with high flux dialyzer (n = 15). A high statistical significant difference (P < 0.01) was found regarding K 4.3±0.6 meq/l in group A while it is 5.2±0.5 meq/l in group B, a high statistical significant difference (P < 0.01) was found regarding phosphorus 4.6±1.0 mg/dl in group A while it is 6.1±0.9 mg/dl in group B and no statistical significant difference (P > 0.05) was found as regard the uric acid. A statistical significant difference (P < 0.05) was found regarding CRP 63.5±40.9 mg/dl in group A while it is 73.4±33.2 mg/dl in group B, a statistical significant difference (P < 0.01) was found regarding IL6 85.3±37.6 mg/dl in group A while it is 156.7±151.9 mg/dl in group B after 3 months and no statistical significant difference (P > 0.05) was found as regard those inflammatory markers before 3 months. A statistical significant difference (P < 0.05) was found regarding CRP. A statistical significant difference (P < 0.05) was found regarding IL6. Conclusion The present study revealed that there was no significant change in CRP and IL6 in patients on HDF compared to patients undergoing hemodialysis with high flux dialyzer before 3 months but there was a significant decrease in CRP and IL6 in patients on HDF compared to patients undergoing hemodialysis with high flux dialyzer after 3 months.

هدف البحث إلى التعرف على أثر استخدام التعلم المقلوب في تدريس مقرر المناهج على التحصيل وإکساب المهارات الحياتية لطلاب الفرقه الرابعة شعبة الرياضيات بکلية التربية ، ولتحقيق ذلک قامت الباحثة بإعداد أدوات القياس والتي تمثلت اختبار تحصيلي في ضوء تصنيف مستويات کابس (CAPS) ( Critical Thinking Achievement and Problem Solving ) ( المعرفة – الفهم والتطبيق – التفکير الناقد وحل المشکلات ) ، ومقياس المهارات الحياتية وتضمن مهارات : ( حل المشکلات واتخاذ القرار ، التفکير الناقد ، التواصل والتفاوض الفعال ، الوعي والتعلم الذاتي ، التعاون والعمل ضمن فريق ) ، والمادة التعليمية تمثلت في دليل المعلم الجامعي ، أوراق عمل الطالب المعلم ، وقد تم حساب صدق أدوات البحث باستخدام صدق المحکمين ، وحساب الثبات عن طريق برنامج SPSS بحساب معامل ألفا کرونباخ وکانت قيمته للإختبار التحصيلي (86,0) ، وقيمته لمقياس المهارات الحياتية (896,0) ، وتکونت عينة البحث من (76) طالب وطالبة بالفرقة الرابعة- شعبة الرياضيات ، تم تقسيمهم إلى مجموعتين (ضابطة – تجريبية ) عدد کل مجموعة (38) طالب وطالبة ، وقد أظهرت النتائج وجود فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية عند مستوى دلالة (000,0) بين متوسطي درجات المجموعتين (الضابطة – التجريبية) في التطبيق البعدي للاختبار التحصيلي ، وذلک لصالح المجموعة التجريبية ، وکان حجم تأثير المتغير المستقل ( التعلم المقلوب ) في المتغير التابع ( الاختبار التحصيلي ) کبيرا لصالح المجموعه التجريبية ، ولا توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين المجموعة الضابطة والتجريبية في التطبيق البعدي لمقياس المهارات الحياتية ولکل مهارة على حده عدا مهارة (التعاون والعمل في فريق) کان هناک فروق عند مستوى( 05,0) لصالح المجموعة التجريبية ، وأخيرا لا توجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين الذکور والإناث للمجموعة التجريبية في التطبيق البعدي لمقياس المهارات الحياتية ککل ، ولکل مهارة على حدة. The aim of the research is to know the effect of using flipped learning in teaching curricula course on achievement and life skills acquisition of faculty of education fourth year mathematics majors. To achieve that, the researcher has designed measurement tools represented in an achievement test in the light of CAPS classification levels (knowledge – comprehension and application – critical thinking and problem solving) and a life-skills scale which includes skills such as:(problem solving and decision making, critical thinking, effective communication and negotiation, awareness and self-learning, cooperation and teamwork). Educational material is represented in teacher's guide and student teacher worksheets. Validity of research tools has been estimated by jury members' validity. Reliability has been estimated by SPSS program by calculating cronbach Alpha coefficient. Its value was (0.86) for the achievement test and (0.896) for the life-skills scale. The sample of the research that is 76 students in the fourth year Mathematics majors, is divided into two groups (control and experimental groups, each group has 38 students). The results have shown that there is a statistical significant difference at a level 0.000 (favoring the experimental group) between the mean scores obtained by the experimental group and the control group on the post achievement test. The effect size of the independent variable (flipped learning) on the dependent variable (achievement test) is high favoring the experimental group. There is no statistical significant difference between mean values obtained by the experimental group and the control group on the post life-skills scale as a whole or at a time except cooperation and teamwork skills that have statistical difference at a level(0.05) favoring the experimental group. Finally, there is no statistical significant difference between males and females of the experimental group on the post life-skills scale as a whole or at a time.

To histopathologically and biochemically evaluate the hypothesis that tadalafil increases the uptake of a second medication into the prostate tissue by increasing the blood supply in the prostate. Forty 12-week-old Sprague Dawley male rats were equally divided into 5 groups and were administered drugs orally as follows: Group 1 - no drugs, Group 2 - 10 days of finasteride, Group 3 - 10 days of finasteride + tadalafil, Group 4 - 30 days of finasteride, and Group 5 - 30 days of finasteride + tadalafil. At the end of 10 days of drug administration in Group1, 2, and 3, and at the end of 30 days of drug administration in Group 4 and 5,blood samples were collected from rats and analyzed for serum androgen levels. In addition, prostate tissues were removed for histological examination. The mean DHT level as well as the minimum and maximum epithelial thicknesses in Group 3 were lower than those in Group 2. However, there was no statistical significant difference (P = 0.989, P = 0.176, and P = 0.070, respectively). The mean DHT level as well as the minimum and maximum epithelial thicknesses in Group 5 were lower than those in Group 4. However, there was no statistical significant difference (P = 0.984, P = 0.147, and P= 0.478, respectively). The mean minimum and maximum epithelial thicknesses in Group 3 and Group 4 were not statistically different (P = 0.488 and P = 0.996, respectively). The similarity of the mean minimum and maximum epithelial thickness in Group 3 and Group 4 may be indicate that the combination therapy provides an early histological effect. However, the fact that there was no statistical significant difference between Group 2 and Group 3, and between Group 4 and Group 5, in terms of the mean DHT level and minimum-maximum epithelial thicknesses suggests that longer term studies with more rats are necessary to test the validity of our hypothesis.