Geochemical processes and groundwater quality assessment in the Yamuna-Hindon interfluve region of Bagpat district, Western Uttar Pradesh, India

The hydrochemical study of groundwater in Karur district of the Amaravathi River basin has been carried out to assess the major ion chemistry and groundwater quality for domestic and drinking purposes. Twenty-four groundwater samples were collected, processed, and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters such as pH; electrical conductivity; total dissolved solids; total hardness; cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium; anions such as bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, fluoride, nitrate, and phosphate in the laboratory using the standard methods given by the American Public Health Association (Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC, 2005). For quality assessment, the results were compared with water quality standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian standards (Indian standards specification for drinking water 15:10500. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2003) and World Health Organization (International standards for drinking water. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2005). All the groundwater samples in all three seasons (pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons) were not useful for drinking purposes owing to elevated levels of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, HCO3 −, and Cl−. Karl Pearson correlation matrices for 14 variables were performed; EC, TDS, and TH had significant positive correlations among themselves and also with Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and Cl−. pH shows negative correlation with most of the parameters. The piper trilinear diagram showed that groundwater in all three seasons falls into mixed Ca2+–Mg2+–Cl− type. Concerning water for irrigation purposes, parameters such as percent sodium (% Na), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), chloro-alkaline indices (CAI I and CAI II), permeability index (PI), magnesium hazard (MH), Kelley’s ratio (KR), USSL diagram, Gibbs’ ratio (GR), and Wilcox diagram were calculated on the basis of chemical data to evaluate the current status of groundwater in the Amaravathi River basin. Parameters like MH (74 %), KR (75 %), RSC (95 %), and PI (69 %) in all three seasons indicate that the samples are suitable for irrigation and remaining are unsuitable. From USSL diagram, the result reveals that the samples fall in C3-S1 and C4-S1 indicate high to very high-salinity and low-sodium hazards. Wilcox diagram revealed out of 24 samples, sample no. 7, 8, and 11 in pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons fall under doubtful to unsuitable and 9 fall under unsuitable zone. The positive CAI values in 66 % samples in all three seasons indicate reverse ion exchange mechanism. The present study may be helpful for further studies concerning water quality issues in this area, where groundwater is a vital for drinking and other activities.

The hydrogeochemical study of groundwater in Dumka and Jamtara districts has been carried out to assess the major ion chemistry, hydrogeochemical processes and groundwater quality for domestic and irrigation uses. Thirty groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, anions (F−, Cl−, NO3−, HCO3−, SO42−) and cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+). The analytical results show the faintly alkaline nature of water and dominance of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in cationic and HCO3− and Cl− in anionic abundance. The concentrations of alkaline earth metals (Ca2+ + Mg2+) exceed the alkali metals (Na+ + K+) and HCO3− dominates over SO42− + Cl− concentrations in the majority of the groundwater samples. Ca–Mg–HCO3 is the dominant hydrogeochemical facies in 60 % of the groundwater samples, while 33 % samples occur as a mixed chemical character of Ca–Mg–Cl hydrogeochemical facies. The water chemistry is largely controlled by rock weathering and ion exchange processes with secondary contribution from anthropogenic sources. The inter-elemental correlations and factor and cluster analysis of hydro-geochemical database suggest combined influence of carbonate and silicate weathering on solute acquisition processes. For quality assessment, analyzed parameter values were compared with Indian and WHO water quality standards. In majority of the samples, the analyzed parameters are well within the desirable limits and water is potable for drinking purposes. Total hardness and concentrations of TDS, Cl−, NO3−, Ca2+ and Mg2+ exceed the desirable limits at a few sites, however, except NO3− all these values were below the highest permissible limits. The calculated parameters such as sodium adsorption ratio, percent sodium (%Na) and residual sodium carbonate revealed excellent to good quality of groundwater for agricultural purposes, except at few sites where salinity and magnesium hazard (MH) values exceeds the prescribed limits and demands special management.

The present investigation aims to assess the processes controlling the composition of groundwater in the Sohagpur coalfield and its quality concerning drinking and irrigation purposes using hydrogeochemical and statistical approaches, water quality indices, and a geographic information system (GIS). Twenty-seven groundwater samples collected from different sites were analysed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, turbidity, major anions and cations, total dissolved solids (TDS), and total hardness (TH). The study results show that the pH of samples varied from 5.97 to 8.26, suggesting the acidic to slightly alkaline nature of the water samples. The TDS ranged from 265 to 1450 mg/L with 78% of the samples being in the freshwater category. The Ca2+-Mg2+-SO4 2− and Ca2+-Mg2+-HCO3 − are dominant hydrogeochemical facies in the Sohagpur coalfield. The hydrogeochemical and statistical methods show that the groundwater chemistry of the Sohagpur coalfield is primarily controlled by the dissolution and weathering of minerals and secondarily due to the influence of anthropogenic activities (i.e., agricultural practices, sewage, and animal waste discharge). In the majority of the groundwater samples, concentrations of TH, TDS, turbidity, and SO4 2− exceeded the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) drinking acceptable limits and suggested that water is unsuitable for direct consumption. Moreover, the estimated water quality index (WQI) indicated that 52% of the samples (especially from the Dhanpuri and Amlai areas) belong to poor to unfit water categories. High values of EC in 56% of the samples and magnesium hazard (MH) at two sites restrict the irrigation suitability at these locations.

The present investigation aimed to evaluate seasonal fluctuations in water quality parameters of the Dhuppani waterfall, located in Rangamati, Bangladesh, with the goal of supporting local inhabitants and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Sampling was carried out over a one-year period from July 2022 to June 2023, encompassing the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons. Water samples were collected from three designated stations and analyzed at the Water Quality Laboratory of the Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail, Bangladesh. The parameters assessed included temperature, water transparency, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), pH, total alkalinity (TA), and total hardness (TH). The measured values ranged as follows: temperature (12.10 to 23.10°C), transparency (25 to 130 cm), EC (155 to 217 µS/cm), TDS (71 to 111 mg/L), DO (5.8 to 8.7 mg/L), BOD (0.49 to 1.05 mg/L), pH (6.10 to 8.20), TA (125 to 212 mg/L), and TH (72 to 185 mg/L). Analysis revealed that temperature, TDS, and BOD peaked during the pre-monsoon period and gradually declined through the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Conversely, EC and pH levels were found to be highest in the post-monsoon season, followed by the pre-monsoon and monsoon periods. Total alkalinity was at its maximum during the monsoon season, decreasing progressively in the post-monsoon and pre-monsoon phases. In contrast, total hardness showed a peak in the post-monsoon, followed by the monsoon, with the lowest values recorded during the pre-monsoon season. In the waterfalls, DO was higher in the monsoon season when compared to the post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons. Those physicochemical parameters furnish insights into water quality, ecosystem health, and potential water-related activities. The study provides baseline data on water quality from waterfalls in the Rangamati hill regions, which contributes to the long-term conservation of these aquatic ecosystems for human consumption and aquatic resource management. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 15(2): 74-84, Dec 2025

Water is very crucial with the allusion of public health conditions. Water quality assessment was performed by collecting spring samples from four Mandals of tribal areas of Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh.The study was conducted to evaluate the physico-chemical quality of some spring water sources based on the consumption of tribal community. Ten samples were collected and analysed for physical-chemical quality for pH, Electrical conductivity(EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness(TH), calcium hardness(CaH),magnesium hardness(MgH), Total alkalinity(TA), chlorides (Cl), fluoride(F), nitrates(NO 3 ), sulphate(SO 4 2 ), phosphates(PO 4 ), Dissolved oxygen(DO), biological oxygen demand(BOD),and Turbidity in pre and post monsoon seasons, the correlation studies indicate thathigh strong correlation of calcium with total hardness(0.70) and nitrates with phosphates (0.74) in pre monsoon season, a strong correlation was observedwith DO and BOD(0.82) turbidity with phosphate (0.76) in post monsoon season. The result indicate that the some of the parameters like EC,turbidity, TDS, total hardness, total hardness, calcium, magnesiumand DO are above the limits of WHO and BIS (ISO:100500) limits in pre and post monsoon season, mostly in post monsoon period and some parameters are found to be normally high.Hence the spring water is not favoured for drinking mostly in post monsoon period and required treatment or to look for other sources (bore wells) than springs in this area.

Water is essential for all types of living beings. Application of fertilisers in agriculture became a prime source for contamination of subsurface waters. Backwaters from aquaculture can also contaminate the groundwater sources. The study aimed at assessing the chemical and metal toxicity for evaluating water quality. The quality of water was assessed during pre monsoon season between February and May 2017 and post monsoon season between October 2017 and January 2017. pH is measured using portable pH metre, electrical conductance(EC) is measured using portable EC sensor, total dissolved solids (TDS) is measured by portable TDS sensor, DO is measured by DO metre, total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TA), CO3 2−, HCO3 −, Cl−, Ca2+, Mg2+ are measured by titrimetry, SO4 2− and PO4 3− are measured by spectrophotometer, NO3 − by using ion selective electrode, Na+ and K+ by Flame photometer and metal ions like Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, As and Hg by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy technique (ICP-OES). The analytical results showed that during pre monsoon season in both agricultural and aquaculture areas Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg are below the guideline values of IS and WHO. The concentration of As and Cu metal ions during post monsoon season are higher than the guideline value of WHO. In waters near agricultural areas TDS and TH were observed to be higher than the guideline values of IS. In waters near aquaculture areas TDS, TH, TA, Chloride, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium were observed to be higher than the guideline values of IS.

The present study is carried out in the Bokaro district of the Jharkhand state to identify the hydrogeochemical characteristic of the groundwater and assess its quality with reference to drinking, domestic, and agriculture purposes. In the study area, 102 groundwater samples were collected during the pre-monsoon season and post-monsoon season (51 samples per season) and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, F−, Cl−, HCO3−, SO42−, NO3−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+. The analytical results show slightly acidic to slightly alkaline nature of the groundwater in the study area. Ca2+ and Na+ are the dominant cations, while anion chemistry is dominated by HCO3− and Cl− during both seasons, respectively. The data plotted on the Piper and Gibbs diagram, as well as statistical analysis, reveals that the chemistry of the groundwater in the study area is mainly controlled by rock weathering phenomenon with secondary contributions from anthropogenic sources. The water quality assessment indicated that TDS, hardness, Ca2+, Na+, HCO3−, and Cl− are the major concern parameters in the study area during both seasons. Sodium adsorption ratio, sodium percent, residual sodium carbonate, magnesium hazard, Kelly’s ratio, and permeability index are calculated to identify the suitability of water for irrigation purposes and revealed that most of the groundwater is suitable for irrigation purposes, except few sites. The present study will be useful in the future management of groundwater resources of the area.

The current study is focused on evaluation of hydrogeochemical aspects of groundwater for analysis of groundwater chemistry and quality assessment in the south east Rajasthan (India). A total of 50 groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for the assessment of major cations and anions, total dissolved solid (TDS), electrical conductance (EC), total hardness (TH) and total alkalinity (TA), and the results were compared with the WHO standards of drinking water. The results have demonstrated that the groundwater is alkaline in nature and in most of the groundwater samples the quantity of TH, TDS, EC, TA and NO3- is exceeded to the WHO standards. Additionally, alkali metal ions are mainly contributed from the dissolution of halite and silicate weathering processes, whereas the alkaline earth metal ions from the carbonate dissolution and silicate weathering processes. The saturation indices (SI) values show that the groundwater in the study area is oversaturated in terms of dolomite, calcite and argonite while undersaturated in gypsum. Hydrogeochemically the groundwater is Ca.Mg-HCO3, Ca.Mg-Cl and Ca.Mg-SO4 types. Moreover, it is mixed type with reference to cations and anions. The ionic plots, molar ionic ratios, CAI, SI and Gibb’s diagram have revealed that the chemical weathering of rock minerals, reverse ion exchange and anthropogenic activities are the key processes, regulating the chemical composition of ground water in the study area.

Groundwater quality assessment is vital for ensuring water security, sustainable agriculture, and the well- being of the local communities in arid and semi-arid regions. This research aims to evaluate the suitability of groundwater quality for irrigation in the Tolon District, Northern Region of Ghana, using various irrigation water quality indices (IWQIs), including sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), potential salinity (PS), permeability index (PI), magnesium hazard (MH), total hardness (TH), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and specific ion toxicity integrated with the inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation method. The IDW interpolation method in ArcGIS was used to plot spatial distribution maps of IWQIs. Twelve physicochemical parameters taken from 97 wells, including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), Ca2+, Na2+, K+, Mg2+, Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, CO32−, and HCO3−, were analysed. The study revealed that several parameters, such as EC, TDS, SAR, PS, PI, RSC, Na, K, and Cl, indicate that 82, 89, 98, 83.6, 44, 87.7, 80, 57, and 85% of samples, respectively, range from good to excellent quality during the rainy season. In addition, the MH index indicates that 82% of the samples are suitable for irrigation use. The IWQIs can help decision-makers and farmers identify sustainable groundwater-based irrigation regions.

In Afghanistan, groundwater is widely used for drinking water, but its quality poses a health threat. This study investigates the physical, chemical, and bacteriological characteristics of groundwater in the Upper Kabul Sub-basin. Fifteen samples were collected and analyzed from different parts of the study area. The qualitative determination of parameters such as pH, Electrical conductivity (EC), Total dissolved solids (TDS), Salinity, Total hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Chloride, Fluoride, Sulfate, Phosphate, Potassium, Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonia, Iron, Manganese, Copper, Aluminum, Arsenic, Total coliform, and Fecal coliform bacteria was carried out. The results were compared with WHO and ANSA standards to assess their suitability for drinking purposes. The analyzed samples indicate that physical parameters generally fall within permissible limits according to WHO and ANSA standards. However, certain wells exhibited elevated levels of chemical and bacteriological contaminants. Specifically, Magnesium concentrations exceeded the WHO guideline of 30 mg/L in all of the samples, and Calcium levels surpassed the recommended limit of 75 mg/L in 53% of the samples. Total coliform bacteria were detected in 33.33% of the samples, while fecal coliform bacteria were within the WHO and ANSA permissible limit for drinking water. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) suggested significant correlations between EC, TDS, and total hardness with other physical and chemical parameters. For instance, EC showed a strong positive correlation (R = 1.00) with TDS, EC and Salinity (R = 0.981), EC and Fluoride (R = 0.838) EC and Sulfate (R = 0.853), TDS and Salinity (R = 0. 981), TDS and Fluoride (R = 0.838), TDS and Sulfate (R = 0.853). The findings demonstrate that correlation coefficient analyses of water quality parameters provide a valuable means for monitoring water quality. These results offer critical insights for ensuring a safe water supply in the region.

Groundwater is being used for drinking and irrigation purposes in the agricultural dominated Indian state of Punjab. Fifty-six groundwater samples were collected from Bathinda, a south-western district of Punjab, during the pre-monsoon (March 2010) and post-monsoon (October 2011) seasons. These samples were tested for major cations, anions and contaminants. Various classification systems were used to study the groundwater quality with respect to drinking as well as irrigation purposes. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and total hardness (TH) are generally used to determine the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose. Considering TDS as a parameter, 54 and 57 % groundwater samples were found to be unsuitable for use during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons. A wide range of TH values were observed in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon waters samples (mean 250 and 270 mgL−1). About 75 % of pre-monsoon and 79 % of post-monsoon samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit (MPL) of TH (150 mg L−1) proposed by WHO. In terms of contaminant ions, 40 % and 55 % of the pre- and post-monsoon water samples were unfit for drinking purposes w.r.t. fluoride (MPL 1.5 mg F L−1), 29 and 36 % were unfit w.r.t arsenic (MPL 10 μg L−1) and 33 and 45 % were unfit w.r.t nitrate (MPL 45 mg NO3 − L−1), respectively. To determine the suitability of groundwater of Bathinda for irrigation purpose, three classification systems proposed by different research workers were used. The parameters electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio, and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) were calculated on the basis of chemical data. Considering EC and RSC together, 32 % samples collected during pre-monsoon season were fit, 19 % were marginal and 49 % were unfit for use. However, during post-monsoon, samples fit for irrigation decreased to 17 % and samples unfit for irrigation increased to 70 %. Increases in the percentage of unfit samples for irrigation after monsoon indicates addition of salts along with the rain water percolated into the groundwater. The other two classification systems, i.e. US Salinity diagram and Wilcox diagram also showed the similar results.

The deterioration of groundwater quality poses a significant concern for inhabitants residing in the mining region. Thus, the present research aimed to assess the geochemistry and suitability of the groundwater for drinking and domestic use in the Umaria coalfield. To accomplish the goals, one hundred groundwater samples were collected on a seasonal basis from various locations in the Umaria coalfield and analysed for pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and major ions. The pH of the tested samples ranges from 6.4 to 8.0 in the post-monsoon season and 6.2 to 8.0 in the pre-monsoon season, indicating a slightly acidic to slightly alkaline nature. The post-monsoon season sampleshavea range of TDS from 74-1,325mg/L and 87-1,611mg/L in the pre-monsoon season. The concentration of cations plus anions in the groundwater is 609mg/L in the post-monsoon season and 765mg/L in the pre-monsoon season, showing minimal seasonal change in the cationic and anionic chemistry. The groundwater in the studied region shows Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-SO4-Cl hydrogeochemical facies in both seasons. The dominant cations are Ca2+ and Na+, while the dominant anions are HCO3- and SO42- during both seasons. The hydrogeochemical plots, ionic ratios, and multi-statistical analysis suggest that rock weathering, ion exchange processes and human activity are the main factors influencing the chemical composition of Umaria coalfield groundwater. The high SO42- concentration in the groundwater samples is primarily attributed to the oxidative weathering of pyrite, followed by gypsum dissolution, and can have an adverse impact on the human health in the studyarea. Agricultural practices and residential sewage cause a high NO3- concentration in some samples, which can harm the health of the population residing in these areas. The high values of TDS, total hardness (TH), nitrate, sulphate, fluoride, magnesium, calcium, and the water quality index (WQI) indicate that many groundwater samples require proper treatment before being used for drinking and domestic purposes.

Mine water from the West Bokaro coalfield was qualitatively assessed with respect to domestic and irrigation criteria. Thirty water samples from different mines were collected and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, major cations, anions, and dissolved silica. The pH of the samples ranged from 6.6 to 8.3 in the post-monsoon season and 6.7–8.4 in the pre-monsoon season, indicating its near-neutral to slightly alkaline nature. TDS ranged from 349 to 1029 mg L−1 in the post-monsoon season and 499–1458 mg L−1 in the pre-monsoon season. The spatial differences in TDS reflect the local lithology, surface activities, and hydrology. Ca–Mg–SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3 were the dominant hydrogeochemical facies; SO4 2− and HCO3 − were the dominant anions and Ca2+ and Mg2+ were the dominant cations during both seasons. High SO4 2− concentrations are attributed to oxidative weathering of pyrite and gypsum dissolution. Computed supersaturation with respect to dolomite and calcite for most samples may result from the dissolution of gypsum after the water is saturated with respect to the carbonate minerals. Despite moderate to high TDS, total hardness, and SO4 2− concentrations, most of the sampled mine water was of good to permissible quality for irrigation; however, locally higher salinity and Mg restrict its suitability for irrigation at some sites.

Groundwater is contaminated by anthropogenic factors such as industry, domestic waste, and excessive fertilizers. Groundwater samples, which were obtained from 50 different wells in July 2020, were used in this study. Thirteen hydrochemical properties, including electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), nitrate NO3-, anions, and cations were analyzed. Also, types of groundwater were investigated via the Piper diagram. The groundwater was also evaluated for irrigation suitability using the sodium percentage (Na%), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly's index (KI), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), potential salinity, magnesium hazard (MR), and permeability index (PI). The samples were assessed for drinking the suitability using the water quality index (WQI) and the nitrate pollution index (NPI). Geographic information systems (GIS) were used to create spatial distribution maps of irrigation water quality indices, WQI, and NPI values. The results of major cations varied sodium 28.69-211.80mg/L, calcium 78.74-258.89 magnesium 27.78-161.30mg/L, and potasium 0.10-3.57mg/L. The results from the study area showed that 62.70 of EC, 32.40% of PI, 20.09% of RSC, 51.55% of PS, and 49.36% of MR were inappropriate for irrigation purposes. The NPI data ranged from - 0.75 to 9.65, and 21.06% of the study areas were heavily polluted. The WQI showed that almost 62.90% of the experimental area was categorized as poor, very poor, and inappropriate for drinking water purposes, whereas 37.10% of the areas were categorized as good and excellent.

The main aim of the present study is to evaluate the impact of agricultural activities on the groundwater quality in the eleven selected village areas of Medchal-Malkajgiri district of Telangana State, India. Forty Groundwater samples were collected during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon. The groundwater samples collected were analyzed for key agricultural nutrients, including Nitrates (NO₃⁻), Phosphates (PO₄³⁻), and Potassium (K⁺), as well as various physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness (TH), Total Alkalinity (TA), Sodium (Na⁺), Calcium (Ca²⁺), Magnesium (Mg²⁺), Carbonates (CO₃²⁻), Bicarbonates (HCO₃⁻), Chloride (Cl⁻), Fluoride (F⁻), and Sulphates (SO₄²⁻). The analyses followed the American Public Health Association (APHA) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The results were then compared against the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 2012 and World Health Organization (WHO) 1999 guidelines for drinking water quality. The analytical results reveal that nitrates are within the acceptable limit during pre-monsoon season but five samples (25%) were exceeding the acceptable limits in post-monsoon season. It clearly indicates that the agricultural activities may be affecting the quality of groundwater in the study area. The concentration of TDS, TA, HCO3– and Cl– are also showing higher values.