Genome-wide genetic-marker variation uncovers potential stock structuring of oceanic tuna (skipjack) and coastal tuna (kawakawa) within the western Indian Ocean

Tuna represents a highly valuable global fishery, comprising 7.9% of the total 67.9 million metric tons (MT) of marine finfish catch. Among tuna species, Katsuwonus pelamis, skipjack and Euthynnus affinis, kawakawa are commercially important, particularly for artisanal fisheries. Skipjack is the most dominant tuna species globally, contributing over 60% to total tuna production. In the Indian Ocean (IO), skipjack catches approximately 420,000 MT annually. Kawakawa, the second most abundant neritic tuna in the IO, accounting for roughly 12% of neritic tuna landings, is primarily harvested by artisanal fleets, with annual catches of around 160,000 MT. While current assessments indicate that skipjack and kawakawa stocks in the IO are not overfished, maintaining their long-term health is crucial. This research addresses three key areas: genetic diversity, population structure, and connectivity of skipjack and kawakawa tuna in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO); size structure and reproductive characteristics of these species within the WIO; and the value chain of the Kenyan artisanal tuna fishery, focusing on skipjack and kawakawa. To achieve these objectives, skipjack and kawakawa samples were collected from Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and South Africa. A non-random sampling approach was employed to obtain specimens and data from artisanal and recreational fisheries. Biological and genetic sampling were conducted concurrently. The economic value chain of the Kenyan artisanal tuna fishery was examined through questionnaires and catch data. This analysis focused on the socio-demographic profiles of key actors, the value chain structure, and associated economic benefits across four Kenyan landing sites. To investigate stock structure in WIO skipjack and kawakawa tuna, we employed tunable Genotyping-by-Sequencing (tGBS) to generate genome-wide Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) data. Skipjack analysis revealed 7005 SNPs with an average observed heterozygosity (Ho) of 0.206. While overall genetic differentiation (FST) among samples was low (global FST = 0.003) between samples (FST = 0 – 0.013), significant genetic differences were observed between skipjack samples taken north of Mtwara in southern Tanzania (i.e., northern Tanzania, Kenya and Sri Lanka) and those to the south (i.e., southern Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa), with Seychelles falling closer to the southern grouping. Kawakawa analysis, based on 14806 SNPs and an average Ho of 0.2585, indicated a patchy distribution of low but significant genetic differentiation among WIO populations (global FST = 0.018) between-sample (FST = 0.003 – 0.036) but with no obvious geographically-based pattern. However, unlike skipjack, a clear geographic pattern in genetic structure was not evident for kawakawa. Skipjack and kawakawa populations in the WIO exhibited seasonal fluctuations in size distribution, potentially influenced by environmental conditions and fishing practices. Landings of both species were male-biased, with sex ratios of 58% and 53% for skipjack and kawakawa, respectively. Female skipjack reached sexual maturity at a fork length (FL) of 42.0 cm, while males matured at 47.0 cm FL. For kawakawa, female and male maturation lengths were 44.0 cm FL and 45.3 cm FL, respectively. Spawning occurred throughout the year, with peak activity coinciding with the Northeast Monsoon (NEM) season. Our analysis of the artisanal tuna value chain indicates that fishers primarily sell their catch to agents (53%), with the remaining proportions going to traders (20%) and processors (18%). Processors, predominantly women, play a key role in the value chain and realized the highest net profit margin (49.5%). Limited post-harvest infrastructure, inadequate transportation, and poor marketing conditions were identified as key challenges impacting the quality of fish lowering their income. These challenges disproportionately affect fishers with limited access to market information and financial resources. The findings demonstrate the need for multi-level interventions to optimize benefits from the artisanal tuna fishery along the entire value chain taking into consideration the economic, environmental, and social dimensions. This research provides crucial information for effective tuna management in the IO. Current management practices treat skipjack and kawakawa as a single, homogenous population across the entire IO. However, our genetic findings suggest the presence of distinct population groups (stocks) for both species within the WIO. Moreover, seasonal variations in size structure and reproductive characteristics observed support this hypothesis of multiple stocks. These results emphasize the need for a precautionary approach to tuna management in the region. Collaborative efforts among countries are essential to develop sustainable fisheries management strategies that consider biological, economic, and social factors. By integrating these perspectives, we can ensure the long-term health of tuna populations while supporting the livelihoods of fishing communities.

Globally, small-scale fisheries (SSF) support over 94% of the 120 million people engaged in capture fisheries. An estimated 5.8 million fishers in the world earn less than $1 per day, yet they generate an estimated two-thirds of the global fish catch for direct human consumption, with fish being a key source of local food security. According to the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, (2012), tenure systems are defined as the rules and norms that determine who can access what resources and their spatial and temporal attributes. The FAO’s Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries (2015) identify the governance of tenure as a fundamental requirement for responsible and sustainable use of aquatic biodiversity and natural resources.In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region, the importance of small-scale fishers to broader sustainability outcomes is crucial. In the WIO region, small-scale fishers are strongly anchored in local communities, reflect a way of life, and provide critical contributions to society, economy, culture, and environment. At the same time, there has been a rapid increase in regional dialogues and actions related to WIO blue economy initiatives and global conservation targets catalyzed by multi-lateral agencies, global development and conservation organizations and regional governments. At the core of these initiatives are substantive challenges and/or threats to marine tenure of SSF and coastal communities generally. In our presentation, we highlight in particular two specific gaps which the Blue Tenure Transitions (BTT) working group is addressing. First, how we are building the transdisciplinary science base for the WIO region on the specific impacts and implications of marine tenure and the social, culture, economic, and ecological challenges of inadequate tenure provisions in the context of Blue Economy and 30x30 initiatives such as Marine Spatial Planning in countries such as South Africa and Tanzania. Second, we will present how we are co-developing participatory methodologies that enable communities to map and subsequently ‘share their stories’ about marine tenure in creative and accessible ways (through visuals and artforms and/or narratives) that empower them to advocate for necessary reforms. Our overall objective is to support community tenure systems and highlight bright spots where tenure has led to positive social and ecological benefits to ensure small-scale fisheries have equitable access to ocean resources, and help co-generate policies and practices that help protect and enable small-scale fishers. Working group members in the BTT project are funded by the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association and are based in both academic and government positions, from the University of Cape Town, South Africa, Institute for Coastal and Marine Research at the Nelson Mandela University, South Africa, Rhodes University, South Africa, Institute of Marine Science at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Ministry of Fisheries and Blue Economy, Zanzibar, South African Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, South African National Biodiversity Institute, and the Vulnerability to Viability Global Partnership for Small-Scale Fisheries at the University of Waterloo in Canada.

Aim Cryptoblepharus is a genus of small arboreal or rock‐dwelling scincid lizards, widespread through the Indo‐Pacific and Australian regions, with a disjunct outlier in the Malagasy region. The taxonomy within this genus is controversial, with different authors ranking the different forms (now some 36) at various levels, from different species to subspecies of a single species, Cryptoblepharus boutonii. We investigated the biogeography and genetic differentiation of the Cryptoblepharus from the Western Indian Ocean region, in order to understand their origin and history.Location Western Indian Ocean region.Methods We analysed sequences of mitochondrial DNA (partial 12s and 16s rRNA genes, 766 bp) from 48 specimens collected in Madagascar, Mauritius, the four Comoros islands and East Africa, and also in New Caledonia, representing the Australo‐Pacific unit of the distribution.Results Pairwise sequence divergences of c. 3.1% were found between the New Caledonian forms and the ones from the Western Indian Ocean. Two clades were identified in Madagascar, probably corresponding to the recognized forms cognatus and voeltzkowi, and two clades were identified in the Comoro islands, where each island population formed a distinct haplotype clade. The East African samples form a monophyletic unit, with some variation existing between Pemba, Zanzibar and continental Tanzania populations. Individuals from Mauritius form a divergent group, more related to populations from Moheli and Grand Comore (Comoros islands) than to the others.Main conclusions The level of divergence between the populations from the Western Indian Ocean and Australian regions and the geographic coherence of the variation within the Western Indian Ocean group are concordant with the hypothesis of a colonization of this region by a natural transoceanic dispersal (from Australia or Indonesia). The group then may have diversified in Madagascar, from where it separately colonized the East African coast, the Comoros islands (twice), and Mauritius. The genetic divergence found is congruent with the known morphological variation, but its degree is much lower than typically seen between distinct species of reptiles.

Seaweed farming in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) Region is carried out in a number of countries, most of them farming Eucheuma denticulatum, Kappaphycus alvarezii and Kappaphycus striatum. These species are farmed mostly in Tanzania with limited production in Madagascar, Mozambique and Kenya; current production (2012) stands at 15,966 t (dry weight) year−1 of Eucheuma and Kappaphycus, valued at US$ 4.2 million with 95 % of this tonnage coming from Tanzania. Other countries in the region have limited or no seaweed production owing to problems of epiphytes, ice ice and markets. The problem of epiphytes coupled with ice ice that WIO countries are facing causes die-off of Kappaphycus which is the preferred species in foreign markets for its thicker gel, kappa carrageenan (vs. the weaker iota carrageenan from Eucheuma). New efforts are put to curb these problems including moving seaweed farms to deeper waters and cultivation trials of other carrageenophytes as well as agar-producing species, agarophytes. Research work has been initiated to evaluate Gracilaria and Hypnea farming and processing in Tanzania, the Republic of Mauritius and Mayotte. Gracilaria farming is at experimental stages as a biofilter of fishpond effluents and as potential species for the production of agar with growth rates of 1.5–1.9 % day−1. Hypnea farming is only being initiated in Mauritius and Mayotte at present. Other innovations including value addition by making various seaweed products and encouraging the consumption of seaweed as food at least in Tanzania and Mauritius are increasing further the importance of the seaweed farming and processing industry in the WIO Region.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) intend to “achieve a better and more sustainable future for all people in the world”1. They have become a key driver for policy and decision-making in many regions, including in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region. This paper analyses national and regional progress towards achieving SDG 14 in the WIO. Progress of four of the SDG 14 targets that were due in 2020 are analysed. SDG 14 has influenced regional and national policy agendas but current tools to measure this progress fail to provide a detailed picture of achievement towards each target for countries in the WIO. The paper highlights that the region has shown limited success in achieving the targets and SDG 14 targets are unlikely to be reached by 2030. The WIO region lags behind with regard to marine conservation related targets. More than half of the countries have low to average progress on SDG 14.2 on marine areas being covered by area-based management tools. Even more countries are far from achieving the 10 % coverage of marine protected areas under SDG 14.5. The region is performing better with regards to fisheries management targets with most countries classified as making average to good progress towards SDG 14.4 on sustainable stocks and SDG 14.6 on addressing harmful subsidies and IUU fishing. The diversity of the socio-economic and governance contexts in the WIO countries contributes to different levels of progress. The fairly positive ecological state of the WIO supports progress towards SDG 14. Understanding barriers to progress is fundamental to help with the prioritisation of the actions needed to meet the SDG 14 targets by 2030. Regional actors and policy-makers will need to increase their ambitions to meet the SDG 14 targets and ensure a healthy ocean and improved prospects for the region and its citizens. To account for barriers in progress towards SDG 14, the WIO region needs appropriate reporting and monitoring mechanisms and it should follow a holistic regional approach of ocean governance integrating conservation and sustainable resource use. It needs to build capacity and knowledge sharing for implementation of SDG 14 and ocean governance at various levels. Improved implementation of SDG targets will have social, economic and environmental benefits within the region.

Fine-scale patterns of population genetic structure and diversity of ethnolinguistically diverse populations are important for biogeographical ancestry inference, kinship testing, and development and validation of new kits focused on forensic personal identification. Analyses focused on forensic markers and genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data can provide new insights into the origin, admixture processes, and forensic characteristics of targeted populations. Qiang people had a large sample size among Tibeto-Burmanspeaking populations, which widely resided in the middle latitude of the Tibetan Plateau. However, their genetic structure and forensic features have remained uncharacterized because of the paucity of comprehensive genetic analyses. Here, we first developed and validated the forensic performance of the AGCU-Y30 Y-short tandem repeats (STR) panel, which contains slowly and moderately mutating Y-STRs, and then we conducted comprehensive population genetic analyses based on Y-STRs and genome-wide SNPs to explore the admixture history of Qiang people and their neighbors. The validated results of this panel showed that the new Y-STR kit was sensitive and robust enough for forensic applications. Haplotype diversity (HD) ranging from 0.9932 to 0.9996 and allelic frequencies ranging from 0.001946 to 0.8326 in 514 Qiang people demonstrated that all included markers were highly polymorphic in Tibeto-Burman people. Population genetic analyses based on Y-STRs [R ST , F ST , multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis, neighboring-joining (NJ) tree, principal component analysis (PCA), and median-joining network (MJN)] revealed that the Qiang people harbored a paternally close relationship with lowland Tibetan-Yi corridor populations. Furthermore, we conducted a comprehensive population admixture analysis among modern and ancient Eurasian populations based on genome-wide shared SNPs. We found that the Qiang people were a genetically admixed population and showed closest relationship with Tibetan and Neolithic Yellow River farmers. Admixture modeling showed that Qiang people shared the primary ancestry related to Tibetan, supporting the hypothesis of common origin between Tibetan and Qiang people from North China.

We have recently developed analysis methods (GREML) to estimate the genetic variance of a complex trait/disease and the genetic correlation between two complex traits/diseases using genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data in unrelated individuals. Here we use analytical derivations and simulations to quantify the sampling variance of the estimate of the proportion of phenotypic variance captured by all SNPs for quantitative traits and case-control studies. We also derive the approximate sampling variance of the estimate of a genetic correlation in a bivariate analysis, when two complex traits are either measured on the same or different individuals. We show that the sampling variance is inversely proportional to the number of pairwise contrasts in the analysis and to the variance in SNP-derived genetic relationships. For bivariate analysis, the sampling variance of the genetic correlation additionally depends on the harmonic mean of the proportion of variance explained by the SNPs for the two traits and the genetic correlation between the traits, and depends on the phenotypic correlation when the traits are measured on the same individuals. We provide an online tool for calculating the power of detecting genetic (co)variation using genome-wide SNP data. The new theory and online tool will be helpful to plan experimental designs to estimate the missing heritability that has not yet been fully revealed through genome-wide association studies, and to estimate the genetic overlap between complex traits (diseases) in particular when the traits (diseases) are not measured on the same samples.

Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development and management of marine recreational and sport fisheries in the Western Indian Ocean

The interaction between human culture and the coastal and marine environment in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region has over time produced unique cultural products, practices and cultural influences. Several historical and archaeological sites exist, some attached to the region’s rich maritime history, with slave trade as an important component. Evolution of cultures over the years (Seland 2014) provide people with a range of heritage values, cultural identities and certain forms of spiritual services (UNESCO 2003). Some of these landscapes have also attracted significant tourism due to their aesthetic and historical value. Equally important are traditional knowledge systems and institutions, some of which are given anecdotal or mythical reference, yet which illustrate existence of customary systems of resource management and local people’s understanding as well as appreciation of ecosystem functioning (Cinner and Aswani 2007, Masalu and others, 2010). Marine resources, either used for cultural transactions or for direct consumption, are also part of the cultural heritage associated with the ecosystem, providing a range of benefits for the sustenance of coastal livelihoods. Certain historical sites and landscapes have however suffered from poor management (Duarte 2012), owing to factors that include changing value systems and physical intrusion, calling for concerted management efforts. At the same time, while some of the intangible heritage in the WIO region remains quite vibrant and dynamic, others are declining in cultural significance (Cinner 2007, Sunde 2013). Integration of customary systems in the management of resources is indicative of the region’s desire to support a holistic approach to management. This chapter presents and discusses some of the services derived from cultural products and practices in the WIO region and their significance in the management of the coastal environment.

The Western Indian Ocean (WIO) is a region where biodiversity is increasingly being impacted by anthropogenic marine debris, but information is scattered widely in the literature. Herein, we reviewed 147 marine litter studies from the WIO region covering the time period from 1973 (first study published in the region) to the end of 2021, in order to (1) synthesize available information on the quantities and composition of marine litter and microplastics in the main ecosystem compartments, (2) identify the main sources and pathways of litter and (3) summarize which organisms have suffered from interactions with marine litter. This information was evaluated to (4) determine important knowledge gaps and (5) develop recommendations to address the issue in the region. The oceanography of the WIO is dominated by the western boundary currents (WBC), which are characterized by high current velocities and frequent onshore flows, potentially influencing the dynamics of marine litter in the region. The literature review confirms that higher macrolitter densities (mostly plastic packaging) on the seashore were generally found on urban, recreational beaches close to point sources (urban run-off, beachgoers). Identification of litter types and local concentrations indicate that most litter does not disperse far from the source, suggesting that shorelines in the WIO region are important sinks for litter. Some buoyant litter also reaches WIO countries after extended oceanic journeys and onshore transport in the WBCs, mainly from Southeast Asia, but most foreign PET bottles are dumped illegally from ships. Many studies (37%) reported interactions between organisms and marine litter; ingestion (103 species) and entanglement (58 species) were documented most frequently, and all four species of sea turtles studied had ingested plastic debris. Major knowledge gaps identified were related to the studied compartments and countries (most studies have been conducted on sandy beaches and in South Africa), to the quantification of litter from land-based versus offshore sources and to the determination of litter impacts on organisms, at both the individual and population level. Reducing current levels of plastic pollution requires reusable materials and better waste management, as well as international efforts to reduce the input of litter from shipping and fisheries. Despite local particularities (e.g. socioeconomic systems, hydrology, geomorphology), the general patterns and processes in the WIO region (high local retention, some input from offshore sources) likely apply to marine litter dynamics in other WBCs, requiring similar solutions.

Ports and neighbouring cities function as connectors between land and water and have long accommodated a substantial flow of goods and services. Port cities in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region and the Global South (GS) are rapidly and inevitably expanding as the demand for global trade increases. However, this expansion has numerous impacts on the surrounding marine ecosystem and the socio-economic livelihoods of local communities. We propose a framework to evaluate the sustainability of port cities in the WIO region and more broadly for cities in the GS. Through an exploratory approach, a systematic literature review (SLR) was undertaken to identify existing themes on port city and marine ecosystem sustainability indicator frameworks. The results revealed a strong bias towards sustainability publications designed for port cities in Global North. The approach developed from this study focuses on the socio-economic and environmental attributes relevant to ports in the WIO region and for GS countries. This draws from the Drivers, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR) framework and includes 78 indicators. The indicators are designed to identify and report on the complex land and sea interdependencies of port cities. To test the validity of these indicators their interdependencies were examined through a Causal Network (CN) structure which identified 12 priority DPSIR CN. These were also mapped to the UNSDGs enabling the wider applicability and transferability of the framework. The resulting framework enables port cities in emerging economies to establish robust sustainable reporting systems and provides a framework that offers a unique lens for evaluating interactions embedded in the land and sea continuum.

Owing to their long-term and intimate relationship with the sea, small-scale fishers around the world have developed deep and rooted knowledge about their coastal and marine environment. This rich body of knowledge allows fishers to detect changes in marine species abundance and distribution. However, the importance of fishers’ local knowledge for fisheries knowledge and management tends to be overlooked or subordinated to fisheries sciences, thus limiting a comprehensive assessment of small-scale fisheries (SSF). This is especially the case in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region, where studies that have woven scientific and fishers’ local knowledge together are scarce. This study addresses this gap by exploring the complementarity between scientific and fishers’ local knowledge on harvested marine species and their historical trends drawing upon two small-scale fishing communities in coastal Kenya (Malindi-Watamu) and northern Madagascar (Diana region). We used a mixed method approach, combining background local coastal fisheries data for the past 20 years with free listing interviews with fishers (n=80 in each site). These interviews consisted of asking fishers to list the main harvested marine species they know, and report observed changes in their catches over time. To weave scientific and fishers’ local knowledge together, we applied the Multiple Evidence Base approach as an integrated analytical framework to explore knowledge pluralism. We found evidence of an extensive overlap between harvested marine species reported by scientists and fishers. In addition, in the two sites, fishers reported a decline in the abundance of demersal reef species that was not documented in scientific data. Importantly, our findings revealed that fishers’ local knowledge varied according to different social variables, namely age and ethnicity in coastal Kenya and age and gender in northern Madagascar, thus calling for further intersectional research in SSF contexts. Through a transdisciplinary approach, this study highlights how weaving multiple knowledge systems together can improve our understanding of SSF dynamics in the WIO region. The lessons learned from these two regional case studies aim to support policymakers and ocean professionals in their action towards sustainable fisheries management and conserving, sustainably managing and restoring marine and coastal ecosystems in line with the Ocean Action Panels 5 and 1 of UNOC3.

Understanding the trends and status of mangrove research is essential for informing science‐based conservation and management decisions, particularly in regions facing increasing ecological pressures. This systematic review aimed to assess the mangrove research efforts (REs) in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region over the past decade (2013–2023), with a focus on thematic and spatial research trends, the extent of studies on peri‐urban mangroves, as well as integration of gender and social considerations in the REs. Using the Web of Science and Scopus databases, 188 peer‐reviewed publications, from 2013 to 2023, relevant to mangrove in WIO countries (excluding Somalia and Comoros due to limited documentation), were selected and analyzed. Results show that less than 8% of the total publications were review papers. The majority (79%) of the studies had a biological focus, while only 18% addressed socioecological aspects. Notably, only 13 studies reviewed focused on gender and social inclusion aspects. In the peri‐urban mangrove studies, 50% research focused on pollution and there were no reviews on these mangroves. These findings highlight a need for more interdisciplinary RE that integrates social and ecological perspectives, particularly in rapidly urbanizing coastal areas. Strengthening the social dimension of mangrove research is essential to ensure inclusive and sustainable conservation outcomes in the WIO region.

A total of 43 colonies of the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis from lagoonal and reef slope sites in the western Indian Ocean (WIO) region were genetically characterised at one nuclear and two mitochondrial sequence markers and six microsatellite loci. Both mitochondrial and microsatellite data support the existence of two reciprocally monophyletic clusters (F- and NF-types) and provide evidence of the existence of two cryptic species of P. damicornis on reefs in WIO region and put current morphological delineation and geographical boundaries of P. damicornis and Pocillopora molokensis into question. The results add to ongoing studies on the phylogeny and phylogeography within the genus Pocillopora, which all point towards a range of unresolved morphological and molecular species boundaries. Nuclear phylogenies derived from the present and previously published sequences show evidence for incomplete lineage sorting and/or introgressive hybridisation between Pocillopora morphospecies. However, the two WIO types largely remain in separate clusters, further supporting the theory that these represent two different species.

Estuaries provide unique ecosystem goods and services and have been focal points for human settlement andresource use throughout recorded history. In the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) region, the effects of human population growth, rapid economic development and climate change on estuaries threaten their ecological functioning and the sustainability of estuary-dependent livelihoods. Governance systems are ill-equipped to deal with the mounting challenges. Long-term datasets that describe estuary-scale trends are scarce, and socio-ecological interactions that support sustainable use of resources are incompletely understood. To address these gaps, the Estuarize-WIO project (2016-2019) compiled datasets on biophysical, ecological, socio-economic and fisheries aspects of selected estuaries in Mozambique (Bons Sinais), Tanzania (Ruvu) and Kenya (Tana), analysed trends per estuary, and used a socio-ecological systems (SES) framework to integrate information from multiple sources at local and regional levels. The introductory paper of this Special Issue of the Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science provides regional context and reviews the relevant literature available for WIO estuaries. In succeeding papers, estuarine circulation is inferred from hydrological measurements, seasonal and decadal trends in land cover and land use are investigated using remote sensing images, household surveys are used to investigate socio-economic circumstances and resource use, and long-term catch survey data and field samples are used to describe small-scale fisheries. In the synthesis paper, a SES framework is constructed to investigate linkages and feedback loops in individual estuaries. A regionally comparative analysis across the WIO region was conducted, and recommendations were made for future research and governance. The methodological approach developed for Estuarize-WIO is well-suited to research of data poor systems with limited accessibility and research infrastructure.