Abstract
The degree to which the maintenance of carbon (C) stocks and tree diversity can be jointly achieved in production landscapes is debated. C stocks in forests are decreased by logging before tree diversity is affected, while C stocks in monoculture tree plantations increase, but diversity does not. Agroforestry can break this hysteresis pattern, relevant for policies in search of synergy. We compared total C stocks and tree diversity among degraded forest, complex cacao/fruit tree agroforests, simple shade-tree cacao agroforestry, monoculture cacao, and annual crops in the Konawe District, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. We evaluated farmer tree preferences and the utility value of the system for 40 farmers (male and female). The highest tree diversity (Shannon–Wiener H index 2.36) and C stocks (282 Mg C ha−1) were found in degraded forest, followed by cacao-based agroforestry systems (H index ranged from 0.58–0.93 with C stocks of 75–89 Mg ha−1). Male farmers selected timber and fruit tree species with economic benefits as shade trees, while female farmers preferred production for household needs (fruit trees and vegetables). Carbon stocks and tree diversity were positively related (R2 = 0.72). Adding data from across Indonesia (n = 102), agroforestry systems had an intermediate position between forest decline and reforestation responses. Maintaining agroforestry in the landscape allows aboveground C stocks up to 50 Mg ha−1 and reduces biodiversity loss. Agroforestry facilitates climate change mitigation and biodiversity goals to be addressed simultaneously in sustainable production landscapes.
Highlights
The global relevance of managing landscapes simultaneously for resilient production, carbon (C) storage, biodiversity, and watershed functions has raised interest in the degree to which such functions tend to correlate [1,2], with some authors claiming causal links beyond correlations [3]
We address the following research questions: (1) To what extent do cacao-based agroforestry, remaining forest and cacao monoculture systems differ in C stocks and species diversity? (2) What are the shade tree preferences based of male and female farmers? (3) Do C stocks in agroforestry systems correlate with tree diversity? We hypothesize that tree diversity and C stocks in agroforestry systems are positively related and that they are distinct from forest degradation and restoration curves due to farmer management actions (Figure 1)
Only 18 species were found in cacao agroforestry (CAF) and shade cacao agroforestry (SAF), where most species were fruit trees planted by farmers such as Durio zibethinus, Lansium domesticum, Nephelium lappaceum, and Mangifera indica
Summary
The global relevance of managing landscapes simultaneously for resilient production (climate change adaptation), carbon (C) storage (climate change mitigation), biodiversity, and watershed functions has raised interest in the degree to which such functions tend to correlate [1,2], with some authors claiming causal links beyond correlations [3]. Synergy between combatting climate change (mitigation) and conserving biodiversity in production landscapes is desirable, and may be attained in agroforestry systems [4]. There is a positive feedback between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning [5,6], as trait diversity reduces vulnerability to external shocks, enhances niche differentiation and productivity [7], and carbon stocks. Biological diversity promotes various ecosystem functions at multiple spatial and temporal scales [9]. Within forest ecosystems, it allows species to access more available resources, and facilitate other species, resulting in enhanced resistance to disturbance and generally enhanced stability [10]
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