Gaps and overlaps in facilities of urban public rental housing for single-person households: the case of Seoul’s happy housing

The supply of public rental housing is a policy in which the state can actively intervene to stabilize housing for the low-income brackets. The supply of public rental housing is stipulated in the “SPECIAL ACT ON PUBLIC HOUSING”. From now on, we need to reflect the social trends such as the increase in single-person households and the elderly. In addition, there is a need for a policy that can improve problems related to existing public rental housing such as the social exclusion of public rental housing complexes. Accordingly, the direction of improvement of the public rental housing supply law is as follows.<BR> First, it is necessary to establish a public rental housing supply policy that is subdivided according to the characteristics of the region. In this case, it is necessary to emphasize the role of local governments that can grasp the local situation concretely. Second, there is a need for an adequate supply of small public rental housing for single-person households. In this case, the quality of housing should be improved. Third, public rental housing for the elderly should be provided, preferentially in places located close to the area where they were living. And the elderly should be allowed to live near medical and welfare facilities. Finally, public rental housing can be secured and supplied while conducting urban regeneration projects. In this case, public rental housing can be supplied by utilizing vacant houses.

BackgroundGlobally, public housing is utilized to provide affordable housing for low-income households. Studies have shown an association between public housing and negative health outcomes. There is paucity of data pertaining to outpatient primary and tertiary healthcare resources utilization among public rental housing residents in Singapore.MethodsA retrospective cohort study was performed, involving patients under the care of SingHealth Regional Health System (SHRS) in Year 2012. Healthcare utilization outcomes evaluated included number of outpatient primary and specialist care clinic visits, emergency department visits and hospitalization in Year 2011. Multivariate logistical analyses were used to examine the association between public rental housing and healthcare utilization.ResultsOf 147,105 patients, 10,400 (7.1%) patients stayed in public rental housing. There were more elderly (54.8 ± 18.0 vs 49.8 ± 17.1, p < 0.001) and male patients [5279 (50.8%) vs 56,892 (41.6%), p < 0.001] residing in public rental housing. Co-morbidities such as hypertension and hyperlipidemia were more prevalent among public rental housing patients. (p < 0.05).After adjustment for covariates, public rental housing was not associated with frequent outpatient primary care clinic or specialist outpatient clinic attendances (p > 0.05). However, it was associated with increased number of emergency department visits (OR: 2.41, 95% CI: 2.12–2.74) and frequent hospitalization (OR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.33–1.83).ConclusionResiding in public rental housing was not associated with increased utilization of outpatient healthcare resources despite patients’ higher disease burden and frequency of emergency department visits and hospitalizations. Further research is required to elucidate their health seeking behaviours.

Public housing refers to housing that is built, purchased, or leased and supplied by a public housing business entity under the Special Act on Public Housing with financial support from the State or local governments or the Housing and Urban Fund. Public housing can be broadly divided into public rental housing and public sale housing. Public rental housing is divided into eight types: permanent rental housing, national rental housing, happy housing, and etc.. In addition, so-called public-private self-owned housing was introduced in 2021. Korea's public rental housing system has changed according to the policy regimes of governments on public rental housing, and with these changes, new types of public rental housing have been introduced and the supply of certain types of public rental housing has increased or decreased. And there were also changes in the name and legal basis of public rental housing. The integrated public rental housing type was introduced in 2020 to unify the various types of public rental housing and simplify the occupancy qualifications. Follow-up measures are needed for the establishment of the integrated public rental housing type. Meanwhile, there are doubts about the effectiveness of so-called public-private self-owned housing, such as accumulated equity housing unit for sale and profit-sharing housing unit for sale, introduced in 2021. And until now, public housing was supplied by the State and LH Corporation, but now there is an opinion that the social housing supplied by local governments and social economy entities should be revitalized. However, due to the nature of social housing, social economy entities will experience financial difficulties just like LH Corporation, and these difficulties will eventually be resolved only with the support of the State or local governments. However, such support for social economic entities would be a burden to the State or local governments, and therefore, social consensus on such support should be preceded. In addition, social conflicts are occurring due to the supply of public housing, and social mix policies are being attempted to solve this problem, but another type of social conflict is occurring as a result. Ultimately, social conflicts caused by public housing can only be resolved when there is a social consensus on the overall public housing policy.

Reflecting the reality that 70% of Korea's population lives in apartment, many studies have been conducted on CPTED's perspective on crime in apartment, but crime and CPTED studies in public rental housing are very insufficient and CPTED certification is mainly applied to private construction apartment. Therefore, this study analyzes the perception and physical status of crime safety of residents of public rental housing and private apartments certified by the Korean Cpted Association, and seeks ways to prevent crime and reduce fear in public rental housing in the future. The study focused on field and drawing analysis (number of households, type and layout, outdoor space composition and facilities), questionnaire analysis(socio-demographic factors, psycho-behavioral factors, fear of crime factors, recognition of crime prevention environment, etc.), and crime analysis (5 major crimes). To summarize the research results, in the case of the physical environment, the mainstay of private apartments is the cascade structure, and the complex consists of various outdoor spaces and community facilities. On the other hand, the main building of public rental housing was a corridor-type structure, and the degree of facilities was somewhat insufficient compared to the size of the outdoor space, and there was a difference between underground parking lots and community facilities. From a socio-demographic point of view, public rental housing were the most inhabited by single-person households in their 20s, which was found to have high demand for housing for young single-person households due to the concentration of public institutions relocated to base national universities and innovative cities. From a psycho-behavioral point of view, public rental housing were most frequently selected as reasons for low life satisfaction, including unsafe environments from crime and apartment design, which is believed to reflect the fundamental problems of public housing. From the perspective of crime safety, private apartments had high satisfaction with the visibility and number of installations such as surveillance cameras and emergency bells, but public rental housing had low satisfaction or negative perceptions. In the comparison of overall crime awareness and fear of crime by type, apartment residents who received CPTED certification had high satisfaction and low fear. The high response that it will contribute to the expected effect of reducing fear of crime and the improvement of apartment brand value is believed to provide implications for the expansion of CPTED certification in the future. This study was conducted based on the survey, and it is factors by identifying the differences in resident perception by item and confirming the positive effect on CPTED. However, since statistical analysis according to variable factors is insufficient, subsequent studies will need to supplement this.

The purpose of this study is to contribute to improving the nation's housing stability and the living standards of the low-income earners by suggesting an improvement plan for the supply methodology among the public rental housing systems in Korea.Chapter 2 established the concept of public rental housing. This part of the study systematically organized a total of 31 laws and regulations composing the current public rental housing system and further examined the transition process of the system itself. In addition, this study also analyzed the inventory and annual supplies of public rental housing that are currently available on the market. On that basis, this study presented three problems that are considered to be the most important among the other problems related to the operation of various public rental housing systems that are currently problematic to suggest a methodology to solve them. These three problems are as follows: First, the existing rental housing, 'jeonse', encourages gap investment. Second, there is confusion in the legal system in which the upper and lower laws collide. Third, the legal system is too complicated and excessive with a total of 631 articles. There are three ways to solve these problems. The first way is to propose a plan to partly amend a current law of 'Special Act on Public Housing' and suggest its main contents to make it less complicated and vast. This can be done by the enactment of a special law with the provisional title 'Act on the Supply of Public Rental Housing' separately regulating the selection and operation of occupants of public rental housing. The second solution would be the revision of the particular provisions. The provisions that are currently in conflict are as follows: Article 47, Paragraph 2, Items 4 and 5 of the Enforcement Decree of the Special Act on Public Housing, and Article 25, Paragraph 8, Item 1, and Paragraph 9 of the Enforcement Rule of the Special Act on Public Housing. The last way is to propose a method to convert the leasehold rental system to the housing purchase rental system since the current system is causing problems such as encouraging gap speculation among public rental housing available now.

Modular construction, which involves factory-based modular unit manufacturing followed by installation at a construction site, has been recognized as one of the sustainable construction methods. Its advantages are known to be implemented through (1) standardized design, (2) standardized production method, and (3) large-scale development (mass production system). These three conditions are basic requirements for modular construction market expansion, but it is difficult to define that these conditions are a prerequisite for judging whether modular construction applied or not. Nevertheless, public development companies in regions or countries where modular construction has just begun thought that modular construction should meet all three conditions that are suitable for applying public construction projects. This is because it is difficult to compare conventional construction projects with similar conditions to modular construction projects. This paper analyzes the cost and duration data of three small-scale public construction rental housing (PCRH) projects involving modular construction in Korea. These cases presented herein include a public college student dormitory, public low-rise rental housing, and public mid-rise rental housing in small-scale development projects. Those were applied not standardized design (common design and regulation), but were reflected in each project’s demands (different design and regulation). To compare it, this paper analyzed 91 public housing provision projects’ construction data from 2011 to 2017 from one of the public rental housing provision companies in Korea. Among them, 19 small-scale public rental housing data were extracted for comparing with modular construction project data. The results show that, even if not standardized, the design and production process, and modular construction durations, were more effective—but costs were similar or expensive. Based on the conclusion drawn from three cases, this paper presents important considerations for the application of modular construction in other small-scale public construction rental housing projects from the perspective of public development companies.

The purpose of this study is to determine the level of satisfaction among residents in public rental housing to solve the housing problems of low-income households. From among the various types of public rental housing, those with large differences in the physical housing environment were selected for an analysis of the environmental factors impacting tenants′ residential satisfaction. To achieve the study′s objective, the residential satisfaction of tenants in public residential housing in Seoul was researched and analyzed; results are as follows. First, the environmental factors impacting individuals living in public rental housing were described as the ″Safety and Incivility Factor″ (SIF), ″Physical Factor″ (PF), ″Facilities Accessibility Factor″ (FAF), and ″Equipment Factor″ (EF). Second, these factors were found to impact residential satisfaction of tenants in public rental apartments in the order of EF, SIF, PF, and FAF; they were found to impact the tenants of public rental general houses in the order of SIF, EF, PF, and FAF. These differences are based on the public rental housing type, which necessitates plans that consider priority improvement of residential environment factors according to housing types, to improve the residential satisfaction of tenants in both currently operating and future public rental housing.

This study was to perform for searching the current housing status of middle-class and public rental housing in the metropolitan area. This study surveyed 458 people from 100-150% of median income living in the Seoul metropolitan area. The main findings are as follows. First, public rental housing is being supplied on a small scale of less than 60 ㎡ as a result of housing supply policy to stabilize the housing of low-income families and 1-2 person households. However, households with three or more people account for 35% of all households, and in the Seoul metropolitan area, where housing demand is high, it is judged that supply and expansion of medium-sized public rental housing are necessary. Second, middle-class households living in apartments in the metropolitan area had a 62% self-ownership ratio, and the highest ratio of living in three room apartments with a size of 59-84 ㎡. Single-person households were also found to have the highest percentage of living in two-room apartments. Third, all households want a larger area than the current one when moving in the future, but there is a difference in the size of the desired house by household type. Awareness of public rental housing seems to have improved significantly.

After the Korean government initiated the provision of the permanent public rental housing in 1989, there has been a variety of policy measures to provide decent housing for low-income households. As of 2009, the ratio of the public rental housing to the total housing became 4.8 percent. It is widely agreed that the nation needs to build more public housing and to target a wider range of the types of households. However, the expansion of such development projects has resulted in worries and oppositions in the impacted neighborhoods, which have insisted that such developments bring about negative impacts on the adjacent neighborhoods. This study explores the impact of recently developed public rental housing (“Kukmin” rental housing) on the nearby housing markets. The paper adopts a quasi-experimental design to deal with the possible endogeneity for the construction of public rental housing by adopting an extended treatment to the canonical difference-in-difference method. This research finds that the public housing projects increase the value of surrounding properties.

There are more and more public rental housing residents in Chongqing with the development of public rental housing construction. However, because of marriage, fertility, change in jobs, educational issues, living with old parents, a few public rental housing tenants have to reconsider the objective public rental housing factors according to the variable personal requirements. Those tenants have to replace their public rental housing with new units of different sizes or of different communities to solve their problems. But it is hard to fulfill their exchange renting needs especially changing public rental housing among communities due to current policy. As the result of the situation, public rental housing resources should make a rearrange and reassignment to better meet the needs of public rental housing tenants and to make a contribution to the sustainable development of public rental housing. The data was collected by random questionnaire survey of three public housing communities of Chongqing and bidirectional market matching theory will be used to build models to analyse the problem. Based on the results of the research, suggestions and countermeasures will be put forward to improve the allocation mechanism of public rental housing.

Purpose This study aims to identify the significant exit barriers encountered by tenants in public rental housing and analyze the moderating effects of sociodemographic factors on tenants’ decisions to leave public rental housing. Design/methodology/approach This study applied a quantitative methodology. Questionnaire survey was used as its main instrument for data collection. Responses were gathered from 328 tenants in the Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) through stratified random sampling. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling partial least square (SEM-PLS). Findings The findings reveal that housing availability and the exit programs by DBKL are the most significant factors influencing exit barriers. Tenant income also impacts their decision to remain, as available housing often does not match their income levels. Policymakers and relevant agencies should collaborate to help tenants increase their income, facilitating their transition out of public rental housing. Research limitations/implications This study is limited to the factors influencing the tenant from exiting PRH. Furthermore, the study specifically targeted those who rent public housing under DBKL administration may neglect the perspectives of other stakeholders, such as DBKL management, property owners and policymakers. Therefore, the findings are insufficient in representing tenants other than those under the DBKL’s administration. While the causes may be similar, the opinions and consequences would vary among other tenants depending on their socio-demographic profiles. Practical implications This research offers a more comprehensive understanding of the exit barriers tenants’ encounter in PRH. The results gained from this study will assist policymakers in developing a more comprehensive initiative that will assist tenants in exiting PRH. DBKL can effectively engage PRH tenants to provide a strategic departure mechanism for better solutions. Furthermore, DBKL can offer aid in locating cheap housing options for tenants who may have limited access to information on the availability of such homes. Social implications This discovery will also be advantageous for prospective tenants who have been on the waiting list for several years, eagerly awaiting the vacancy of units previously occupied by other tenants. Furthermore, residents who successfully vacate public rental housing (PRH) will need to be considered for incentives to promote the success of the housing pathway. This will lead to the attainment of the equitable allocation that has been identified as the primary concern of PRH. Originality/value This study seeks to clarify the exit barriers encountered by tenants in PRH and identifies the significant factors contributing to the low turnover rate of tenants. The study is relevant for DBKL and policymakers in promoting the success of housing pathways to ensure fairness and efficiency in the principles of public housing.

Stigma refers to any negative perception on an object. If something is being stigmatized, the mass population shall expel those being stigmatized through treating them differently. And those being stigmatized shall strongly feel a sense of difference from the mainstream value. &#13;\nIn this paper, social stigma on public rental housing (PRH) in Hong Kong is the core focus of study. Experiences from foreign countries having significant PRH developments clearly show that large-scale PRH neighbourhood usually bears strong social stigma for the simple reason of the concentration of the underclass. Owing to the various government policies in respect of PRHs implemented, i.e. targeted PRH allocation policy, intensive management practices, homeownership promotion and limited investment in enhancing PRH living condition together with the ill-intentional reporting method adopted by the mass media to exaggerate the family problems encountered by the PRH residents in order to boost up their sales rate, social stigmatization of large-scale PRH is greatly reinforced. PRH residents then easily feel a sense of inferiority and being looked down upon resulting in being treated differently in many aspects of daily living. Non-PRH residents also contribute to sustain such stigma on PRH residents through minimizing their social contacts with the latter to significantly exclude them from the normal society.&#13;\nTo cope with such negative perception on PRHs, governments of foreign countries tried to conduct image engineering programmes to alleviate the poor image such as launching redevelopment programmes and the realization of tenure mix practices if possible. In a word, it is crystal clear that social stigma on PRH exists in the large-scale PRH developments in foreign countries which associates with both their residents and residency. &#13;\nBack to my local research, the number of PRH in Hong Kong is consistently increasing. What would be the phenomenon of PRH in Hong Kong nowadays? This comes to the centre study of this research which is to draw a convincing conclusion to justify or refute if social stigma on PRHs in Hong Kong is apparent. To develop a coherent argument to testify the statement, a straightforward plan of analysis by adopting four social outcomes measuring instruments, i.e. perceptions on PRHs from PRH and non-PRH residents; phenomenon of PRHs, acceptability of PRHs and the root causes accounting for residents’ perception, is established to take up the task. To realize the analytical framework, secondary data from the Hong Kong Housing Department (HD) would be obtained to study; site visit to Tin Yiu Estate, an estate locates in the “City of Sadness” – Tin Shui Wai for grasping the genuine PRH residency would be conducted; street questionnaire surveys in Tin Shui Wai Estate neighbourhood and the Central and Western District would also be carried out to collect the primary perception from PRH and non-PRH residents on PRH.&#13;\nBy analysing all the data obtained, it is nevertheless concluded that social stigma on PRHs in Hong Kong is, overall speaking, not apparent, social stigma on Tin Shui Wai PRH estates are perceived. Besides, the role of the mass media in shaping the perception of the majority mass on PRHs in Hong Kong is found to be significant. Also, the reason for applying for PRHs shifts from “residents’ genuine need” to “a kind of benefit opened to all those eligible”. Such findings are food for thought for the policy makers to address. This paper would now explicate the aforesaid findings and implications in a systematic manner.

Public housing estates are homes of many Hongkongers, which ties with the ‘collective memory’ of a board, basic and grass-roots group of people in Hong Kong. Though Hong Kong has a rapid development in many aspects, the demand on public housing stays in a relative high level due to many social reasons. For example, new immigrants from mainland China, who marry to local Hongkongers, this puts quite a loading to the public rental housing, which application is around 500 to 600 thousand of each from the total six categories.&#13;\n&#13;\nIn contrast, the investment immigration and also international investor also boost the real estate market that makes the residential flat much more unaffordable, which also resulted in higher demand on subsidized housing. This can be reflected in the breakthrough number of applications1 for public rental housing as announced by the Hong Kong Housing Authority (HKHA). The shortage of land for both the new public rental housing and subsidized housing, as well as the high maintenance cost to keep those old ones with relative low plot ratio, which resulted in great pressure of demolition and redevelopment. So does it means all old housing shall all be removed to suit the “development” of the city?&#13;\n&#13;\nTo ease the pressure of actual needs, as well as to achieve the vision and mission, the HKHA shows her effort on balancing the demolition and redevelopment of public housing with the rise of public awareness in heritage conservation. In view of the numerous hot protests against the demolition of Star Ferry Pier, Queen’s Pier, CGO West Wing, etc., and also the spontaneous interest group formed in the social-media platform, for the memories of the old public housing estate, the HKHA implement a series of program and activities to response to the public concern of ‘preserving the ‘collective memory’ of Hong Kong’s public housing’ during their planning of redevelopment in Shek Kip Mei and Ngau Tau Kok Estates.&#13;\n&#13;\nIn this dissertation, the different conservation approaches that HKHA has exercised in the two focus estates will be studied. The key research enquiry of this dissertation is about what has been done and the message delivered by the HKHA may have gone through an inevitable process, the interpretation and presentation. So what is the objective of doing all these conservation works from HKHA? Is it the goal or intention to help preserving the ‘collective memory’ of Hong Kong’s Public Housing? If yes, does it effectively achieve? What is the criteria and procedure that the HKHA has set up and follow? Who is responsible for the assessment? What makes the differences between the two cases and why? Is it because of the grading declared by the AAB or just because of the noise comes up from the public in particular estate? What should have to be done helping to guide the future conservation works of Hong Kong’s public housing?&#13;\n&#13;\n1 Number of applications and average waiting time for public rental housing, refers to HKHA’s website, http://www.housingauthority.gov.hk/en/about-us/publications-and-statistics/prh-applications-average-waiting-time/index.html.&#13;\n---------------&#13;\n&#13;\n------------------------------------------------------------&#13;\n&#13;\n---------------&#13;\n&#13;\n------------------------------------------------------------

This paper examines the achievements and limitations of housing assistance programs for low-income households. Korean public rental housing has been rapidly developing since 2000, and thereby achieved an increase in public rental housing stock, housing quality improvements, and the reduction of rent over-burden for low-income tenants. Despite some conflicting evidence, it appears that the provision of newly-built public rental housing has helped stabilize the prices of neighboring private rental housing units. But, as we are entering an era of one million long-term public rental housing units, we need to shift our focus from quantity-oriented provision to housing maintenance for tenants, and from cost-based rental housing to affordable rental housing and better access to rental housing for low-income tenants who are not beneficiaries of government assistance. Most of all, it is very important for local governments and the private sector to actively participate in the provision of public rental housing in order to ensure a stable rental housing market.Key words: Public Rental Housing, Low-Income Tenant, Housing Welfare, Housing Assistance Program

The purpose of this study is to estimate the availability of supplying public rental housing by using low utilized city land and to discuss implications of the results. Currently, Seoul faces a housing problem that lacks public rental housing. In difficult situation of securing expanse vast land through residential development projects as past, we examined whether the utilization of scattered city land in the existing urban area for public housing, could be an alternative to the supply by the construction method. Based on the analytical framework devised by research team, estimated supply capacity that was previously presented by Seoul Metropolitan Government has not yet reached the level that was proposed in the public rental housing supply plan. So, there is a need to search for the utilization of various supply methods out of the construction method. In this regard, it is necessary to review on preparing measures for using the city land against the opposition of the local residents, refurbishing old public rental housing for adding new public housing, increasing supply by purchasing existing private housing, and expansion of the housing benefit to absorb the demand for the public rental housing.