Games and gamification in archaeology: Developing analogue modelling as a research tool into cultural evolutionary processes

Independent test results of four different weather forecast models [climatological, persistence, analogue, and regional mesoscale weather simulation (MM5) model] have been compared for four past winters (winter 2003–2004 to winter 2006–2007) for qualitative weather (snow day/no snow day) and quantitative categorical snowfall prediction at six different areas in northwest Himalaya (NW-Himalaya) in India. Weather forecast guidance provided by the MM5 model at 10 km resolution was taken for the study. Test results of MM5 and the analogue model were compared for a limited number of days (with irregular gaps) due to lack of availability of MM5 weather forecast guidance for complete winter periods. Forecasts based on the persistence, climatological, and analogue models were compared for day 1 predictions only. Performance of the analogue model for qualitative weather prediction was found to be comparable to that of the MM5 model for day 1 prediction. However, for day 2 and day 3, performance of the MM5 model was found to be marginally better than that of the analogue model. Marginal difference in overall accuracy of the analogue and MM5 models was found for quantitative categorical snowfall prediction for day 3. The quantitative categorical snowfall forecast error of the MM5 model was found to be greater than that for the analogue model for all three days. Comparative study of the performance of the climatological, persistence, and analogue models showed that the analogue model performs better than the persistence and climatological models for day 1 predictions. The results of this study suggest that the analogue model shows some capability for weather prediction and, along with the MM5 model, could be a useful tool for weather forecasters. Comparative study of the performance of the MM5 model at high resolution (about 2–3 km) and the analogue model for complete winter period may provide some interesting and fruitful results.

Introduction to Special issue

The article reinterprets the process of legal support for archaeological research in independent Ukraine. The formation of the legislative framework for the protection and use of historical and cultural monuments was monitored. The «Regulations on the State Register of National Cultural Property» was considered. Attention is focused on the laws «On the protection of cultural and historical heritage» and «On the protection of archaeological heritage», which were adopted with the aim of improving the legal regulation of the protection and preservation of material remains of the past, and the effectiveness of their use in practice is analyzed. The relationship between the current legislation of Ukraine and the development of archaeological research is indicated. The powers of central executive bodies and other cultural heritage protection bodies, without which the implementation of archaeological research at the legislative level is impossible, are considered. Attention is paid to permits for conducting archaeological explorations, excavations and other earthworks. The importance of the preparation of scientific reports by archaeologists in archaeological activities was noted, and it was indicated that thanks to the detailed regulation of the process of conducting archaeological research and submitting scientific reports, the state of archaeological sources improved. Attention is focused on revealing the activities of the Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the Department «Field Committee», which monitors the quality of professional excavations on the territory of Ukraine. The rights and responsibilities of archaeological heritage researchers are highlighted, the legal status of the archaeological expedition is considered. The main provisions of the Code of Ethics of a Professional Archaeologist, which was created to determine the basic moral and ethical norms of professional archaeologists' activities and their attitude to archaeological heritage, are reflected. Attention was paid to the activities of research centers: «Rescue Archeology Service» (1994), «Protection Archeology Service of Ukraine» (2001), «Centre of Archeology of Kyiv of the Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine» (2006), which allows identifying and saving valuable monuments tombs of different archaeological periods. It is noted that a significant problem in the field of archaeological heritage protection is the coordination of the activities of developers and subjects of economic activity with the bodies of cultural heritage protection. The importance of cooperation of state bodies for the protection of historical and cultural heritage with archaeological institutions was considered, it was noted that this cooperation will allow to develop an effective system of protection of archaeological heritage, to carry out professional certification of monuments of the past, to improve legislative and regulatory acts, which as a result could improve the state of preservation of monuments of archeology and reduce their theft. It is indicated that in 2021, the Institute of Archeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine issued «Proposals on improving the legal protection of archaeological heritage...» to speed up the process of Ukraine joining the Council of Europe Convention, which will allow to more effectively fight against illegal construction works, «treasure hunters» and minimize destruction of archaeological monuments. Key words: monument protection legislation, archaeological heritage protection, archaeological research, scientific report, archaeological monuments.

An analogue model for studying magnetic variations induced by ocean waves

Strike-slip faults often display complex, along-strike geometries with branches and splays, which play an important role in earthquake rupture processes. Based on field examples of active faults and analogue models, we show that this complexity can be caused by lateral changes in lithology. We use geomorphic and ground-penetrating radar analysis of the Awatere Fault in the South Island of New Zealand, to demonstrate that the number of branch faults and width of the fault zone increases as the fault passes from bedrock to unconsolidated alluvial sediments. With analogue models, we test whether this observation can be reproduced. The setup replicates strike-slip faulting using two plates translated at a constant rate of 3 cm/h relative to each other. This establishes a velocity discontinuity at the centre of the model that leads to the formation of a strike-slip fault zone in the overlying analogue material. Each model incorporates a lenticular sand body that represents a less consolidated sedimentary basin above basement, which is represented by corn starch. During multiple model runs, fault branch-points formed at the boundary between the two different materials in the analogue model, thus confirming that the geometric complexity of strike-slip faults is strongly controlled by lateral changes in the properties of the host material. Two processes could play a role here: 1) the frictional properties change abruptly at the lithological boundary, which promotes the nucleation of branch faults and, 2) the angle of internal friction of the material changes across the lithological boundary, thus fostering fault-bend formation at this point. Our analogue modelling results also show that the thicker the sedimentary basin on top of the basement, the wider the zone of deformation. This implies that the lateral passage of active faults from bedrock into unconsolidated material leads to a widening of the deformation zone, which is confirmed by the ground-penetrating radar survey across the Awatere Fault. The results of the study can be applied to situations in which active strike-slip faults run into sedimentary basins, such as the Newport-Inglewood Fault in the Los Angeles Basin. Based on our analogue models, we postulate that the more diffuse, near-surface en-echelon structure in the northwest of the Newport-Inglewood Fault is a function of the higher sediment-basin thickness, compared to the distinct fault trace that is developed above the shallower basin-fill in the southeast. 

Accurate assessment of rate and state friction parameters is essential for producing realistic rupture scenarios and, in turn, for seismic hazard analysis. Those parameters can be directly measured in the laboratory, with experimental apparati that reproduce fault conditions in nature. Alternatively, indirect estimates (i.e., inversion) of rate and state parameters are based on postseismic slip evolution studies and numerical modeling. Both direct and indirect approaches require a series of assumptions that might bias the results.Here we take advantage of a downscaled analog model reproducing experimentally megathrust earthquakes. The analog model shares many characteristics of real subduction zones, although being intentionally oversimplified with respect to nature. This allows reducing the number of potential sources of bias (e.g., fault geometry and asperity size). We perform five analog models with a single, rectangular asperity of different lengths embedded in a nearly velocity neutral matrix. We focus on two different physical conditions, namely the along-strike asperity length and the asperity to neighboring segments length ratio, and study systematically how they tune the model seismic behavior. Then, by coupling quasi-dynamic numerical models with the simulated annealing algorithm, we retrieve rate and state parameters that allow reproducing both the recurrence time, rupture duration and slip amplitude of the analog model, in ensemble. We identify a tradeoff between (a-b) of the asperity and (a-b) of neighboring creeping segments, with multiple combinations that allow mimicking the analog model behavior and variability. We also identify a negative correlation between (a-b) of the asperity and asperity size, with Dc remaining relatively constant within the investigated asperity size range. When estimating (a-b), poorly constrained properties of neighboring segments are responsible for uncertainties in the order of per mille. Roughly one order of magnitude larger uncertainties derive from asperity size. Those results provide a first order assessment of the variability that rate and state friction estimates retrieved for nature conditions might have when used as constraint to model fault slip behavior.

The behavior of a tropical coupled atmosphere/ocean model is analyzed for a range of different background states and ocean geometries. The model is essentially that of Cane and Zebiak for the tropical Pacific, except only temporally constant background states are considered here. For realistic background states and ocean geometry, the model solutions feature oscillations of period of 3–5 yr. By comparing the full model solution with a linearized version of the model, it is shown that the basic mechanism of the oscillation is contained within linear theory. A simple linear analog model is derived that describes the nature of the interannual variability in the coupled tropical atmosphere–ocean system. The analog model highlights the properties that produce coupled atmosphere–ocean instability in the eastern ocean basin, and the equatorial wave dynamics in the western ocean basin that are responsible for a delayed, negative feedback into this instability growth. The growth rate of the local instability c together with the magnitude b and lag of the wave-induced processes determine the nature of the interannual variability displayed in the coupled model. Specifically, these processes determine the growth rate of the coupled system and, when the solutions are oscillatory, the period of the oscillation. The terms b, c, and are set by the background state of the atmosphere and ocean, and the geometry of the ocean basin. The simple analog model is used to design and interpret a set of experiments using the full linear and nonlinear numerical models of the coupled atmosphere ocean system in the Pacific. In these experiments, we examine the effects of the assumed basic state and ocean geometry on the interannual variability of the coupled system. The simple model is shown to be a remarkably good proxy of the full linear and nonlinear numerical models. The limiting nonlinearity in the full numerical model is shown to be the dependence of the temperature of the upward water on the thermocline depth. However, we find the essential processes that describe the local instability growth rate and period of the interannual oscillations in the coupled system are linear. Nonlinearities primarily act as a bound on the amplitude of the final state oscillations, and decrease the period of the firm state oscillations by about 10 percent from that obtained in the small amplitude regime of the full coupled model and the linear analog model. The nonlinear analog model for the full numerical model is derived, and compared with that proposed by Suarez and Schopf. The numerical and analog models help to explain why organized, large amplitude, interannual variability is prominent in the tropical Pacific basin, and not in Atlantic and Indian basins.

Extensional fault systems in sedimentary basins: a review of analogue model studies

So called "analogue models" use condensed matter systems (typically\nhydrodynamic) to set up an "effective metric" and to model curved-space quantum\nfield theory in a physical system where all the microscopic degrees of freedom\nare well understood. Known analogue models typically lead to massless minimally\ncoupled scalar fields. We present an extended "analogue space-time" programme\nby investigating a condensed-matter system - in and beyond the hydrodynamic\nlimit - that is in principle capable of simulating the massive Klein-Gordon\nequation in curved spacetime. Since many elementary particles have mass, this\nis an essential step in building realistic analogue models, and an essential\nfirst step towards simulating quantum gravity phenomenology. Specifically, we\nconsider the class of two-component BECs subject to laser-induced transitions\nbetween the components, and we show that this model is an example for Lorentz\ninvariance violation due to ultraviolet physics. Furthermore our model suggests\nconstraints on quantum gravity phenomenology in terms of the "naturalness\nproblem" and "universality issue".\n

Scaled analogue modelling is a powerful tool for the understanding of the geometric and kinematic development of extensional, strike-slip and inverted fault systems, as well as for some thrust systems. In this paper the results of 2D and 3D scaled analogue model experiments designed to simulate listric fault systems, rift fault systems, and inverted listric faults are reviewed. Simple 2D rift models are characterized by asymmetric rift graben structures with planar rift border faults and domino-style intra-rift fault systems. 2D listric fault models produce roll-over anticlines with associated crestal collapse grabens whereas the ramp-flat listric fault models produce roll-over anticlines associated with each concave-up segment of the main fault system and also a syncline above the convex-up ramp section of the main detachment. The 2D analogue models are directly comparable to natural examples of extensional fault systems. The results of simple 3D analogue models of an orthogonal and a 60° oblique rift are presented. Orthogonal rift models are characterized by both rift-border and intra-rift faults that are nearly orthogonal to the extension direction. Like-dipping intra-rift faults overlap to form relay ramps that transfer displacement between the faults. In contrast oblique rift models are characterized by en-echelon arrays of segmented extensional faults. Rift border fault systems are parallel to the underlying zone of basement stretching whereas the intra-rift faults are segmented and at a high angle to the extension direction. Oblique accommodation zones formed by interlocking conjugate fault arrays separate individual depocentres within the models. No strike-slip or oblique-slip transfer faults are found in these models. The 3D rift models produce fault patterns that are comparable with natural examples of rift systems. Analogue modelling of inverted listric faults is described and the results compared with natural examples of inverted fault systems. The results of the scaled analogue models described in this paper provide important constraints on section interpretation and restoration in that they permit an understanding of the geometric and kinematic evolution of fault (and fold) structures as well as indicating the sequences of faulting and activity on faults. They provide templates for the interpretation of seismic sections in regions of poor data quality and for projecting surface data into the sub-surface.

Electric analog computers are playing an important role in the forecast of consequences of developing nonhomogeneous aquifers in Illinois having highly irregular shapes and boundaries and a wide variety of head and discharge controls. Analog computers are versatile and simple equipment, of low to moderate cost, with which ground‐water development schemes can be rapidly and accurately tested and the relative merits of alternate choices of development can be appraised.The electric analog computer used by the Illinois State Water Survey consists of an analog model and excitation‐response apparatus, i.e., waveform generator, pulse generator and oscilloscope. Analog models are regular arrays of resistors and capacitors and are scaled‐down versions of aquifers and confining beds where present. Resistors are inversely proportional to the coefficients of transmissibility and vertical permeability aquifers and the coefficients of leakage of confining beds. Capacitors store electrostatic energy in a manner analogous to the storage of water in the aquifer. The behavior of the electrical network is described by an equation which has the same form as the finite‐difference equation for nonsteady state two or three‐dimensional flow of ground water. Electrical units (voltage, coulombs, amperes and seconds) and corresponding hydraulic units (feet, gallons, gallons per day and days) are connected by 4 scale factors.Excitation‐response equipment force electrical energy in the proper time phase into the analog model and measure energy levels within the energy‐dissipative resistor‐capacitor network. Oscilloscope traces, i.e., time‐voltage graphs, are analogous to time‐drawdown or time‐recovery graphs and describe drawdown or recovery conditions after a step function‐type change in discharge. A catalog of time‐voltage graphs provides data for construction of a series of water‐level change maps. Close agreement of water‐level declines determined with an analog computer and analytical methods for 3 selected idealized aquifer situations is noted with satisfaction.An electric analog model for the East St. Louis area was assembled. The sand and gravel aquifer in the East St. Louis area has an average thickness of 120 feet, an average width of 7 miles and an average length of 30 miles. The analog model for the aquifer consists of a regular array of 2800 resistors and 1350 capacitors. The scale of the model is 1 inch equals 2000 feet. Values of resistors range in magnitude from 2.2 megohms to 33,000 ohms; capacitors are 2500 micromicrofarads. The effects of the Mississippi River were simulated by terminating the portion of the electrical network along the river in an open circuit. Resistors large in magnitude were connected to terminals along the edge of the aquifer and to ground to simulate small amounts of sub‐surface flow through bluffs. The accuracy and reliability of the electric analog computer was established by comparing past records of water‐level declines and values of water‐level declines determined with the analog computer. The electric analog computer was used to evaluate the practical sustained yields of existing pumping centers, to predict the effects of a selected scheme of development and to deter‐mine the potential yield of the aquifer under assumed pump‐ing conditions.An electric analog model for the Champaign‐Urbana area was assembled. The sand and gravel aquifers in the Champaign‐Urbana area are contained in the Mahomet buried bedrock valley which extends across the central part of Illinois from the Indiana border to the Illinois River Valley. The Mahomet buried bedrock valley averages about 12 miles wide in the Champaign‐Urbana area and is largely filled with glacial drift ranging in thickness from 50 to 440 feet. Sand and gravel are encountered within the glac‐ial drift at depths between 60 and 120 feet (upper aquifer), 140 and 170 feet (middle aquifer) and below a depth of 200 feet (lower aquifer). The upper aquifer is thin and discontinuous; the middle aquifer has an average thickness of 43 feet; and the lower aquifer often exceeds 100 feet thick. Till averaging 120 feet thick (upper confining bed) overlies the middle aquifer; about 30 feet of till (lower confining bed) separates the middle and lower aquifers. The analog model for the complex aquifer system consists of a regular array of 7500 resistors and capacitors. The scale of the model is 1 inch equals 1 mile. Values of resistors range from 1 to 68,000 ohms; values of capacitors range from 10e6 to lo‐' farads. The analog model consists of 2 horizontal arrays of resis‐tors and capacitors (lower and middle aquifers) and 1 hori‐zontal ground wire array (water table) interconnected by two vertical arrays of resistors (lower and upper confining beds). The accuracy and reliability of the electric analog computer are being assessed. The computer will be used to predict the effects of future ground‐water development and the practical sustained yields of existing pumping centers in the Champaign‐Urbana area.

Comparisons between analogue and numerical models of thrust wedge development

A significant component of many public archaeology projects is a focus on primary school education. To develop culturally relevant pedagogy and understand the impact of knowledge about history and cultural heritage, it is important to explore ideas students already have about these concepts and how students interpret and transform information they gather. In Belize, through contact with archaeological resources, research projects, and curriculum initiatives, students develop ideas about and interests in archaeology, ruins, and "the Mayas". This paper is based on ethnographic research with elementary school students on their interactions with archaeological sites and their knowledge and learning about local and national cultural resources. The research is comparative, taking place in two different communities and their schools. It is also interdisciplinary, crossing the fields of archaeology, cultural anthropology, and education. This paper explores the ways students learn about history, archaeology, and cultural diversity in Belize and their knowledge and misconceptions about archaeological practice, history, and culture. Key themes in student knowledge and some origins and potential implications of their ideas are addressed. The article concludes with a discussion of the broader impacts of student learning about the past and intersections with public outreach and archaeological research.

'And I cherish more than anything else the analogies, my most trustworthy masters. They know all the secrets of nature, and they ought to be least neglected in geometry.'These words of the great astronomer Johannes Kepler embody the philosophy behind the research recounted in this interesting book—a book composed of nine selected lectures (and a nice introduction by Bill Unruh) from the international workshop on 'Quantum Simulations via Analogues', which was held in the Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems in Dresden during the summer of 2005.Analogue models of (and for) gravity have a long and distinguished history dating back to the earliest years of general relativity. However the last decade has seen a remarkable and steady development of analogue gravity models based on condensed matter systems, leading to some hundreds of published articles, numerous workshops, and several books. While the main driver for this booming field has definitely been the puzzling physics associated with quantum effects in black holes, more recently much attention has also been devoted to other interesting issues—such as cosmological particle production or the cosmological constant problem. Moreover, together with these new themes there has been a persistent interest in the possibility of simulating cosmic topological defects in the laboratory (although it should be said that momentum for this line of research has been somewhat weakened by the progressive decrease of interest in cosmological topological defects as an alternative to inflationary scenarios).All these aspects are faithfully accounted for in this book, which does a good job at presenting a vivid snapshot of many (if not quite all) of the most interesting lines of research in the field. All the articles have a self-consistent structure—which allows one to read them in arbitrary order and appreciate the full richness of each topic. However, when considered together I would say that they also provide a gentle hint of where the main 'research flow' is going (to use another analogy!). For example, it seems to me that it clearly puts into evidence some of the most prominent present-day trends—like the growing attention devoted to particularly 'malleable' systems like Bose–Einstein condensates (four over nine lectures are entirely or largely based on these striking condensed matter systems), as well as the remarkable degree of complexity achievable in 3He-based analogues.With the exception of the Schützhold article (which can be considered a nice introduction to the issue of horizon physics in analogue models), I would consider each of the articles to be a self consistent account of a particular line of research. In this sense, I think it should be made clear to a potential reader that this book does not propose itself as a systematic review of the entire field (there are already several monographs available online for this purpose) and one should not expect any explicit logic flow linking the various contributions. Rather I would say that this book should be seen as a very useful source of information for researchers with some knowledge of the field, readers who might be looking for several mini-reviews on some of the hot research issues (each of the articles often collects results from several papers of the authors).In conclusion, I think this book is definitely a worthwhile addition to any scientific library, and necessary reading for anybody interested in understanding present trends in analogue models of gravity.

Benchmarking analogue models of brittle thrust wedges