GALEN ON DREAMS: FROM DIVINE REVELATION TO RHETORICAL STRATEGY

A bstract- E xisting classifications of temperament, characters, personality types and ways of behaviour are the disputable issues of the present-day scientific world. The origins of the classifications rise from the ancient philosophy and medicine in China and India (VIII BCE), Greece (V BCE), Rome (II century AD), England and Germany (ХIХ century), USA and Russia (ХХ century). Tremendous amount of the classifications were worked out all over the world and not all of them withstood the test of time. The references to Hippocrates’ and Claudius Galenus’ classifications occur chiefly, which are tangential with regard to mentality and psychic setup and based on humoralism (humorism). Great empirical and experimental materials have been accumulated in scientific history without harmonious systematization in view of the absence of the integrated international system of classification that is the factor restraining the further development of typology. There were curious incidents during typology march. Fourier described three hundred characters, for instance. Unfortunately, any ordinary person could not be able to remember all these descriptions. Since then, researches, finding and admission of the optimum types became the task of paramount importance for the scientists. Ke ywords: temperament (TR), character (temper) (CR), personality type (PT), behavioral style (BS). GJH SS-A Classification : FOR Code: 750299, 170109

Existing classifications of temperament, characters, personality types and ways of behaviour are the disputable issues of the present-day scientific world. The origins of the classifications rise from the ancient philosophy and medicine in China and India (VIII BCE), Greece (V BCE), Rome (II century AD), England and Germany (ХIХ century), USA and Russia (ХХ century). Tremendous amount of the classifications were worked out all over the world and not all of them withstood the test of time. The references to Hippocrates’ and Claudius Galenus’ classifications occur chiefly, which are tangential with regard to mentality and psychic setup and based on humoralism (humorism). Great empirical and experimental materials have been accumulated in scientific history without harmonious systematization in view of the absence of the integrated international system of classification that is the factor restraining the further development of typology. There were curious incidents during typology march. Fourier described three hundred characters, for instance. Unfortunately, any ordinary person could not be able to remember all these descriptions. Since then, researches, finding and admission of the optimum types became the task of paramount importance for the scientists.

Existing classifications of temperament, characters, personality types and ways of behaviour are the disputable issues of the present-day scientific world. The origins of the classifications rise from the ancient philosophy and medicine in China and India (VIII BCE), Greece (V BCE), Rome (II century AD), England and Germany (ХIХ century), USA and Russia (ХХ century). Tremendous amount of the classifications were worked out all over the world and not all of them withstood the test of time. The references to Hippocrates’ and Claudius Galenus’ classifications occur chiefly, which are tangential with regard to mentality and psychic setup and based on humoralism (humorism). Great empirical and experimental materials have been accumulated in scientific history without harmonious systematization in view of the absence of the integrated international system of classification that is the factor restraining the further development of typology. There were curious incidents during typology march. Fourier described three hundred characters, for instance. Unfortunately, any ordinary person could not be able to remember all these descriptions. Since then, researches, finding and admission of the optimum types became the task of paramount importance for the scientists.

The Hippocratic treatise ‘On glands’: the first document on lymphoid tissue and lymph nodes

Recently there has been a surge of new interest in classical studies in the influence of medical ideas (cf., e.g., P. J. van der Eijk, Medicine and Philosophy in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, and M. J. Schiefsky, Hippocrates: On Ancient Medicine, Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2005). van der Eijk and Schiefsky argue convincingly that insights developed by physicians and medical writers in antiquity proved fruitful for philosophers in general, and particularly for the philosophy of nature. Indeed, the great physician of antiquity, Galen of Pergamum, wrote in an eponymous treatise that “the best physician is also a philosopher” (Quod optimus medicus fit quoque philosophus, vol. 1.53–63 in Kühn's edition: Claudii Galeni opera omnia, 20 vols., 1821–33). Happily there is parallel interest in the medical works of medieval thinkers and philosophers, as evidenced by the fine volume of Gerrit Bos under review. Bos presents us with a new edition, in English with a facing Arabic text, complete with critical apparatus, of Moses Maimonides' Medical Aphorisms Treatises 6–9. This work is the second in a series that began with Bos' earlier volume covering treatises 1–5 (Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 2005), and will eventually stretch into three more volumes that will contain all twenty-five treatises on the Medical Aphorisms (xv). There does exist a previous English translation of Maimonides' Medical Aphorisms by Fred Rosner (The Medical Aphorisms of Moses Maimonides. Maimonides' Medical Writings, 3. Haifa: Maimonides Research Institute, 1989.), but Bos' edition makes needed correction to earlier faulty manuscript readings.

Summary In this paper I discuss the introduction of the systematic dissection of human corpses for scientific (medical) purposes in Hellenistic Alexandria. This innovation – associated with the names of Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Keos (third century BCE) in particular – led to significant advances in anatomical and physiological knowledge such as the discovery of the nervous system. Surprisingly, it fell into disuse again very soon after its successful introduction. Why did human anatomy emerge in this particular place in this particular period? Why was it abandoned again so soon? In this paper I will argue that we are dealing with a case of innovation that failed due to inadequate anchoring. In so doing I will take a closer look at the circumstances prevailing in early Hellenistic Alexandria but also put these into perspective by pointing to developments in first and second century CE medicine when a group of physicians, especially Galen of Pergamum, succeeded in putting back anatomy, largely based on animal material, on the agenda of medical research. Two decisive factors and their interplay seem to have been central to the developments we describe, viz. societal (moral, religious) values and norms and developments within ancient medicine itself.

Religious experience is thickly overlayed by theological speculation and the reality of God is further and further submerged beneath theories that fruitlessly attempt to forge a connection between the Invisible and ‘ordinary’ things, between ‘the living ascended glorified personal Christ and lifeless impersonal objects, bread and wine’, as it was put recently in this magazine. Making sense of this sort of discussion is often difficult, because what is actually disputed is the very experience that the doctrine was formulated to express, the experience of God’s presence in things, which, indeed, sinks beneath the weight of words spoken about it. We are increasingly left with the empty shell of a splendid worship from which God himself has retreated.Of course, many aspects of our faith are well served by serious questioning, but that does not always entitle us to unrestrained reflection. Sometimes speculation obscures its object instead of clarifying it, and the mind creates for itself a vacuum where once there was the immediacy of response: for example, when we begin to believe that a demonstration is required to confirm a reality that can, in truth, only be encountered. Is it not a most peculiar ability of the mind, a strange inclination towards self-destruction, to wonder about the factuality of the world, to wonder about the reality of the forest, or the person we love, or the God we inescapably find in our path ? Perhaps the mightier the experience the less we feel able to cope and the more we feel called to doubt. By putting such things in question they are indeed rendered questionable, and we are confronted with the frustrating task of proving that there is a reality that corresponds to the ideas in our mind.

A review of the history of ancient medicine reveals that most of the knowledge is concentrated in the studies of a few scientists. The best-known names include Hippocrates, Rufus of Ephesus, Celsus, and Galen. The survival of their works throughout the ages has been the most important factor contributing to their popularity. However, there are other scientists who made great contributions to science, but whose writings have been lost or destroyed over the course of time. As a result, their names are not as well known as those of others and the value of their contributions is not appreciated. With the improvement of communication technology in the past 50 years, links between the studies of ancient science can be made more effectively and scientists who have remained hidden under the shade of time have begun, after thousands of years, to receive the appreciation they deserve. In the field of neuroscience, the historical record focuses on Galen of Pergamon. But, when his marvelous works are carefully studied, it is interesting to note two names he frequently referenced: Herophilus (335-280 BC) and Erasistratus (310-250 BC). These two scientists were the first to place scientific value on the dissection of the human body. Herophilus is considered the father of scientific anatomy, and Erasistratus was the first experimental physiologist. Attracted by the prospect of material advancement and eminent students, both migrated from their homes in Asia Minor to Alexandria. The works of Herophilus and Erasistratus have been lost entirely, but some details of their teachings may be recovered from the writings of Galen. In this study, we focus on Herophilus, a master of ancient medicine, whose important discoveries about the human body formed the basis for positive science and the foundation for neuroscience.

Representing the flaua bilis: the Portrait of the Choleric in Cesare Ripa’s Iconology. The theory of the four humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile) forms the basis of ancient medicine. Coming from the Hippocratic corpus and completed by Galen of Pergamum (129–216 AD) in his De Temperamentis by means of individual complexions (blood, phlegmatic, angry, melancholic), this theory is essential in modern Europe after more than two thousand years of transmission, development and practice of medicine. Our article aims to examine its fortune in the Iconology of the Italian scholar Cesare Ripa (1555–1622). Starting with the Roman edition of 1603, he enriched his famous allegorical repertoire with a complex entry encoding the four temperaments: Collerico per il fuoco, Sanguigno per l’aria, Flemmatico per l’acqua, Malenconico per la terra. We work here only with the Choleric and undertake to determine the reasons which governed the choice of the attributes retained by C. Ripa (youth, nudity, sword, shield adorned with a flame, lion, fury in the gaze) to offer poets, painters and sculptors the archetype of a figure dominated by yellow, hot and dry bile. To this end, we analyze the medical, literary and iconographic sources on which the author relies, considering also the richness and complexity of the medical discourse he had at his disposal and the very purpose of his Iconology.

Design research today is characterized by its focus on technological innovation, especially digital innovation, and on collaborations between university researchers and private or public sector organizations to address practical concerns. In tandem with this direction, funding bodies encourage and often stipulate cross-disciplinary partnerships and look favourably upon projects that contribute to ‘real world’ impact. These widespread practices, however, can be problematic. They tend to endorse, rather than disinterestedly critique, the dominant paradigm, which despite its many material and practical benefits, is highly destructive of the natural environment, deeply inequitable and socially divisive and, on an individual level, associated with a sense of meaninglessness. Also, such intimate involvement of funding bodies in the positioning of academic inquiry can seriously compromise vitally important elements of scholarship, not least critical distance and academic freedom. Despite the difficulties of doing so within this trenchantly instrumental climate, some take a different path, pursuing design studies that critique narrowly framed technological and economic interpretations of progress; business-focused academic research; and the prioritization of ‘impact’ over curiosity-based inquiry. It is a path that offers opportunities for design to address some of the more significant concerns of our age. Over time, such work may be capable of fostering changes in understanding and contributing to what we might term meaningful innovation. Because of their diverse and emergent areas of focus these areas of design research have a variety of labels including critical design, speculative design, and propositional design. To contextualize these countervailing directions, this chapter begins with a discussion of the role and nature of design practice in academia. An overview of the historical developments that set the agenda for design in the twentieth century, which still dominates the field in the twenty-first, allows us to better understand the contribution of these new directions in advancing the discipline. The works of several designers are discussed, including examples from the author’s own academic design practice. These illustrate the kinds of issues being addressed, the relationship between theory and practice, and the roles of creativity, subjectivity, rhetoric and polemic in design research.

This article proposes to understand the concept of “innovation” as an eclectic concept whose different meaning vary according to contextual and organizational factors. The definition of “innovation” is studied from websites of 22 Canadian nanotechnological enterprises. The adopted epistemological position is qualitative interpretative, and the reasoning method is inductive which allowed the emergence of new dimension of the concept of innovation. In that way, the results presented in this research contribute to the extension of existing knowledge on strategy and innovation. The interpretative analysis reveals four meanings of innovation: innovation as market domination strategy, innovation as a creative process and innovation as a value of commitment. Additionally, we suggest that Canadian nanotechnology enterprises focus on innovation strategies based on the development of nanomaterials more than on the development of finished products. Our discussion is built around the multidimensional nature of the concept of innovation and the challenges regarding the transferability of this results on other sectors.

This chapter examines how smell, sound, and vision become integral ingredients in recipes of and for spirit possession. Spirit possession underscores the drama of life in the world due to its embodied symbolism highlighting existential relations such as earth and sky or men and women. According to Roger Bastide, spirit possession is a dramatic religious experience during which human beings come face to face with the supernatural or deities. The chapter explains that the artful inclusion of the sensorial description of any performance enriches the anthropological record and the existential parameters of the human condition. It considers the notions of functionalism, psychoanalysis, physiological, symbolism, and theatrical framework to elaborate on the key concepts of spirit possession.

The need for meaning and religiosity: An individual differences approach to assessing existential needs and the relation with religious commitment, beliefs, and experiences

The Impact of Hajj satisfaction and Hajj investment on Islamic Religious Commitment: The Case of Indonesian Hajj

This article reports a three-year repeated measures study on the effect of guru-led new religious movements’ (gnrm) customized Facebook yoga lessons on followers’ spiritual experiences and religious commitment. Participants comprised 3,488 followers across four gnrms. During the study period, each gnrm Facebook page had an average of 1,095 daily posts and 156 weekly yoga lessons. Results showed that at phase 2, scores of participants on spiritual experiences and religious commitment measures were significantly higher vis-à-vis the comparison group. Within the participant cohort, women, those with stable marital status, and those who performed a combination of devotional and social service activities at the gnrms scored higher. Disciplined Facebook usage influenced regular viewing of the customized yoga lessons, higher quiz scores, and regular self-practice. The strongest predictor of the phase 2 outcome measure scores was regular self-practice. With focused administering and usage, Facebook is an effective medium for intensifying spiritual experiences and religious commitment among gnrms’ fellowship.