Abstract
Abstract This chapter argues that God-optional religious groups began to replace shared theological commitments with a focus on doing constructive work in the world. For Quakers and Unitarians, this meant humanitarian relief work, increasingly seen as core to their religious identities. Reconstructionist Jews defined their community through their intense commitment to Zionism. The chapter argues that these commitments served as God substitutes, allowing the communities to unite around a set of collective values and ideas. It suggests that these efforts to replace the role of God were only partially successful, as these substitutes did not always provide the same sense of cohesion as a shared theology.
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