FROM WESTERN AZERBAIJAN TO KARS: THE RELIGIOUS AND SOCIO-CULTURAL LEGACY OF AKHUND MALIK MAHAMMAD ISHIGLI

The compositional features were considered and the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were classified. in Kyiv. Their symbolism, structure and structural construction, stylistics and characteristic architectural and decorative features were studied. The purpose of the study: to investigate and analyze the compositional, stylistic and semantic features of the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in Kyiv, to develop the principles of classification of portals and conduct their classification. Methodology. The research was conducted on the basis of the following methods: empirical, theoretical and empirical-theoretical. The empirical method includes observation, photo-fixation, graphic sketches and constructions, comparisons and generalizations. Theoretical techniques include: going from the abstract to the concrete, abstraction, concretization, identification and separation. Most of the work was carried out using empirical and theoretical methods. The results. Photographs, graphic sketches and classification of building portals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were carried out. in Kyiv based on the developed compositional-constructive and stylistic principles of classification. It was found that the portals are located mainly on the main compositional axes of the facades of historical buildings, namely on the main vertical divisions, which are highlighted by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers and often changed scale and shape of windows. The role of the portals in the overall composition of the building and the problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to the replacement or destruction of individual parts and elements of the portals have been revealed. In particular, as a result of unsuccessful repairs and renovations in some buildings of the historical center, the entrance doors were replaced with faceless, rough, unscaled ones, which distorted not only individual facades, but also entire sections of the urban environment. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the compositional and semantic features of the portals of the facades of Kyiv buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure, constructive and stylistic components of the portals. A scientific novelty is the developed classification of the portals of the historical buildings of Kyiv. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv portals of the specified period, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of buildings of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in Kyiv. The developed classification of portals will be a useful educational reference material for students - future architects and designers who are interested in the peculiarities of Kyiv's historical buildings.

Although at least thirty-five women were buried in the earlier necropolis at Vron during the period between ca. 370 / 75 and ca. 435 / 45, only three of them were equipped with typically Germanic brooches or other elements of dress. Such a low proportion of women whose dress was secured according to the Germanic custom by means of brooches, is not unusual in the burial sites of Northern Gaul, and indeed clearly distinguishes these from the burial grounds on the right bank of the Rhine in free Germania, where practically all the women used one or more brooches to fasten their clothing, and were subsequently buried with them. The evidence from Vron, as from other comparable military burial sites to the west of the Rhine (e.g. Oudenburg, Vermand, Vireux-Molhain), attesting how few women were buried with brooch jewellery , may indicate either that in actual fact very few Germanic women had accompanied their men-folk into Northern Gaul, or that the majority of women of barbaric origin had, in the process of cultural assimilation, abandoned their exotic costume at a very early date and now favoured Gallo-Roman dress. Among the typically Germanic dress ornaments observed at Vron, one may distinguish five different brooch types and one hairpin type, analysed below: 1. Simple cross-bow brooches belong to the most frequently attested and geographically widespread group of Germanic women's brooches in the 4 th and 5 th centuries (mid-4 th to mid-5 th centuries) between the Elbe and the Loire (fig. 2). They are almost invariably made of bronze, as are the two examples from Grave 163A and Pit 9. The brooch from Grave 163A, worn as a single item, is remarkable for its greater length, its short spring, and upper chord. These rather unusual features appear most frequently in the simple cross-bow brooches from the Lower Rhine and Westphalia. There, this unusual form may be dated chiefly to the first half of the 5 th century. This corresponds to the chronology proposed by Cl. Seillier, who attributes, on other evidence, Grave 163A to his Phase 3 (= ca.415/20-435/45). 2. Cross-bow brooches with a trapezoid foot-plate represent a further typological development of the simple cross-bow brooch. The silver brooch from Grave 242A possesses in addition a beaded wire decoration on the bow, together with a stamped metal plaque covering the trapezoid foot-plate, features which enable it to be classed with the Vert-la-Gravelle variant (fig. 3). This form of brooch, known almost exclusively by the archaeological evidence from the left bank of the Rhine is probably to be interpreted as the product of workshops in Northern Gaul, which are known to have manufactured other types of Germanic costume ornaments for the wives of foederati (see below). Comparison with the very similar brooches from Grave 7 at Vert-la-Gravelle (Mame) enable this example from Vron to be dated at the earliest to the last third of the 4 th century or to the turn of the century. The location of the inhumation within the burial ground suggests a date within Seillier's Phase 2 (= ca. 390-415/20). 3. The bronze hairpin from the same grave, over 17 cm long, with a small round head, belongs to the Fecamp type (fig. 4), known chiefly from the Germanic female burials and other archaeological evidence found in Westphalia and the Lower Rhine.

The article examines musical culture and education formation and development in the Tavria governorate in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This period in the Southern region of Ukraine is characterized as an era of social and cultural uplift, progressive changes in the educational system, and enhancing the role and place of music and singing in students’ education. Moreover, it is marked by increased attention of the governorate residents to the problems of musical and aesthetic education of children and youth, the growth of public and private educational initiatives, and the formation of general and professional music education.The article identifies the reasons for the greater intensity of the education system development in the Crimean districts compared to the mainland ones; it also provides statistical data on the people’s literacy and education rate in the Tavria governorate in the early 20th century. The article also explains the role of private musical institutions and the influence of the artistic intelligentsia, outstanding musicians and composers on the musical culture and education development in the region.The article highlights that in the late 19th century, Yalta became – to a certain extent – a cultural centre of the Tavria governorate due to its well-developed concert and theatre infrastructure. Yalta and Simferopol have become a focus of establishing public associations with outreach, organizational, musical and educational functions. Activities of the members of these musical societies in Crimean cities resulted in the opening of music courses and classes and one of the first people's music schools in the Russian Empire with free-of-charge tuition. Besides, they arranged public concerts, music evenings, and tours of prominent composers and musicians.The article provides a historical analysis of the establishment of branches of the Imperial Russian Musical Society (IRMS) in the Tavria governorate, the role of the IRMS in the concert, performance and educational activities, its impact on the cultural, educational and social processes in the South of Ukraine, in particular, the establishing the institution of a secondary level of professional musical education – the Simferopol Musical College.

The aim of this study is to elaborate comparative portraits of Korean and Japanese beauty in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Six portraits of beauty in the Korean Joseon Dynasty (early 19th century) and 5 in Japanese Edo Dynasty (late 18th century) were analyzed. Twenty anthropometric items were applied to the measure of the features on each portrait and 18 proportional indices of the face were calculated. Among the 18 indices, Korean and Japanese beauty did not show any significant differences in 13, but in 5: 1) the ratio of eye fissure to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 2) eye inclination was greater in Japanese beauty; 3) the ratio of nasal width to intercanthal distance was greater in Japanese beauty; 4) the ratio of nasal and facial width was greater in Korean beauty; and 5) the ratio of vermilion size to mouth width was greater in Japanese beauty. It is assumed that Korean had narrower eye fissure, lower eye inclination, wider nasal ala, and thinner lip than what Japanese craved during that era.

The publication, based on the study of biographical and autobiographical information, characterizes the educational, professional artistic, and educational activities of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries. An analysis of the role of artists as active participants in the national, cultural, intellectual, and social life of Ukrainian society is presented. The author has studied not only the artistic heritage of artists, but also their multifaceted activities, which covered educational, journalistic, and organizational spheres. The article highlights theoretical positions on the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, which are illustrated by specific examples of their experience and influence on the state of society and professional and general education in Ukraine in the 19th - 20th centuries. The author touches on the problems of the direction of the high society of the middle 19th - early 20th centuries. on the development of Ukrainian culture and education; highlights biographical and autobiographical information about Ukrainian artists of the 19th - 20th centuries; reveals the role of the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, their influence on the formation of public opinion; focuses on the relationship between artistic activity with educational and pedagogical practice, the organization of art circles, schools, the creation of studios and participation in cultural and educational societies. Their pedagogical work in schools, colleges, and academies contributed to the formation of a galaxy of famous Ukrainian artists who continued the national artistic and educational tradition of their predecessors. The work also highlights the problem of self-identification of Ukrainian artists as educators and public figures, since art is considered a powerful tool for influencing and shaping public opinion, a means of broadcasting the idea of national revival, social and cultural renewal of the state. Artists took the position not only of creators of aesthetic values, but also of leaders of the national idea, founders of an intellectual space capable of uniting society around common ideological values. The publication highlights the need to understand the heritage of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries not only as artists, but also as outstanding figures of education, who contributed to the formation of national identity with their work.

Teaching and Learning Guide for: A Window on the ‘New’ Sociology of Childhood

The heights of lower- and upper-class English youth are compared to one another and to their European and North American counterparts in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The height gap between the rich and poor was the greatest in England, reaching 22cm at age 16. The poverty-stricken English teenagers were among the shortest for their age so far discovered in Europe or North America; in contrast, the English rich were the tallest in the world in their time: only 2.5cm shorter than today's US standard. Height of the poor declined in the late 18th century, and again in the 1830s and 1840s conforming to the general European pattern, while the height of the wealthy tended rather to increase until the 1840s and then levelled off. The results support the pessimistic view of the course of living standards among the ultra-poor in the Industrial Revolution period.

Background. The concept of linguistic situation, traditionally studied in sociolinguistics, means the totality of all languages used in a country to facilitate communication at all societal levels. Over the past few decades, the problem of the linguistic environment and the simultaneous use of two or more languages in the same geographical space has been studied not only in sociolinguistics but also in urban linguistics, discourse studies and many other branches of the humanities, primarily in the context of the dialogue of cultures. The form of language functioning (or several languages) in a specific geographical space is defined as the linguistic landscape. The term "linguistic (semiotic) landscape" is synonymous with a number of other terms used by modern sociolinguists: linguistic market, linguistic mosaic, ecology of languages, diversity of languages, or linguistic situation, etc. The specific components of the linguistic landscape, as well as the cultural and historical prerequisites for its formation, require deeper investigation using documented linguistic sources from territories where active intercultural and interlingual contacts have been ongoing for a long time. Galicia and Bukovina at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries were undoubtedly such territories. An integral component of the urban linguistic landscape of that time, one of its graphic markers and identifiers, was Ukrainian advertising published in Galician and Bukovinian periodicals. The actuality of the study stems from the need to examine the historical, factual, socio-cultural, and linguistic aspects of the formation of the advertising style of the Ukrainian language, particularly in the context of the linguistic situation of Bukovina and Galicia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. This will contribute to forming a holistic understanding of the general and specific features of Ukrainian advertising texts of this period and understanding of Ukrainian advertising as a linguistic and cultural phenomenon. Methods. To study advertising announcements published in Galician and Bukovinian periodicals at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries (newspapers “Dilo”, “Bukovyna”, “Dobri Rady”, “Kalendar Prosvity”, “Bukovynsky Kalendar”), the methods of primary source processing, source base sampling, analytical review, descriptive-interpretative, and comparative analysis were applied. Results. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Ukrainian advertising texts aimed at disseminating new knowledge and, at the same time, had to attract the attention of potential clients and influence the psychology of the addressee. These tasks defined the informative and persuasive function of advertising during the studied period, which had all the characteristics of a modern advertising text and included the following main structural elements: 1) headline (in terms of content, these were mainly names of establishments, enterprises, personal names of entrepreneurs); 2) customer appeal c; 3) information block; 4) font and other graphic means of information actualization; 5) signatures and comments; 6) graphic and illustrative components (frame, font, product images, decorative highlighting elements). A characteristic feature of Ukrainian print advertising of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were components determined by interference factors: 1) German or Polish spellings of proper names, product names, contact information; 2) parallel spelling (glossing) of advertised product names in at least two languages; 3) use of borrowings from German, Polish, and Romanian languages, adapted in southwestern dialects or urban koinēs due to lexical interference; 4) application of different graphic and orthographic systems of the Ukrainian language (“maksymovychivka” and “kulishivka”). Discussion and conclusions. Ukrainian advertising texts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries are a component of the linguistic (semiotic) landscape of that time, as they reflect in their graphic and semantic content the functioning of the Ukrainian language in contact with other languages – German, Polish, and Romanian, which for the studied period should be considered co-territorial languages. Foreign language components characterize both the graphics, content, and textual stylistics of Ukrainian advertising of the studied period, thanks to which it emerges as a sociolinguistic and cultural-historical phenomenon reflecting the corresponding period of the development of the Ukrainian literary language. Further research of the general and specific features of Ukrainian advertising of the late 19th and early 20th centuries is necessary for the creation of generalizing theoretical works on advertising studies and specialized dictionaries of Ukrainian advertising.

The incentive for writing this book was another book published by the Chemical Society about 60 years ago, titled British Chemists [1] that completely ignored women—as if there had not been any women among the chemists of earlier generations. The authors felt that the early women chemists in Britain, quite a few of them working already as early as the late 19th century, deserve credit. The book wholly justifies this. As the Introduction tells us, these women chemists rarely received recognition; most of them were unmarried and could never play a leading role in the profession. But they were most enthusiastic about and dedicated to chemistry—this is what must have given them the strength to fight all barriers. The first of these barriers was getting a secondary education (Chapter 1, ‘‘Setting the Scene’’) and then being accepted to a university. In secondary schools— as the Rayner-Canhams argue—throughout the early 20th century, there was ambivalence about why girls need an academic education at all. It was assumed that most girls would become wives and mothers and only a small minority would be interested in pursuing a career. Who would then be the curriculum aimed at? This reminds us of the American movie, Mona Lisa Smile, set in the 1950s in a rich private New England liberal arts college for women, where even some of the most intelligent and interested girls thought that their role in life was to be a good housewife and mother—and only that. If this was still the attitude in the United States in the 1950s, certainly it was even more so in the late 19th and early 20th century probably everywhere. It is quite astounding to read how relatively early, already in the late 19th century, the demand for university education appeared among women. The authors ascribe this to several factors. In the second half of the 19th century, several women’s organizations were established that stood up for higher education for middle-class women. In fact, middle-class women started to look much farther than ever before when planning their future. Several magazines supported this attitude. One example from an article in 1914 [2]: ‘‘Woman is taking to herself a new significance. She is discovering that she, as well as man, has another M. Hargittai (&) Materials Structure and Modeling Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, P.O. Box 91, 1521 Budapest, Hungary e-mail: hargittaim@mail.bme.hu

The turbulent past has marked the entire area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially its peripheral parts, which were often influenced by violent demographic changes, reflecting on various population structures. The wider area of Podrinje was affected by forced migrations of the Bosniak population during the 19th and 20th centuries. The expulsion of Bosniaks from the Principality of Serbia in the early 1830s significantly impacted the demographic structures of the Bosnian Podrinje region, especially the Osat region. This study does not explore various anthropogeographic changes in the settlement of Pribidol, whether they occurred during normal or forced social events, but rather investigates the process of family formation and households during the 19th century. The most important historical sources used for the mentioned research are: the Ottoman census of male household members of the Srebrenica District in 1850/51, the Ottoman cadaster of 1867/75, the list of residential property owners from 1880/84, as well as the land registry books of the Srebrenica District in 1894. This study explored the families that lived in the settlement of Pribidol during the 19th century. These are the following families: Ahmetović, Aljić, Begić, Dervišević, Džananović, Halilović, Husić, Ibišević, Ibrahimović, Janković, Marković, Mešanović, Mitrović, Muminović, Mustafić, Osmanović, Salkić, and Smajić. In the Muslim area of Pribidol, 19 households, or family households, were recorded, with a total of 79 male individuals, with an average age of 20.1 years. In the then-independent settlement of Pribidol, 15 households were recorded, with 59 male individuals, with an average age of 19.0 years. In the Barakovići mahalla, 3 households were recorded, with 14 male individuals, and in the independent settlement of Zgunja, one household was recorded with a total of 6 male individuals. Therefore, the total population of Bosniak Pribidol was around 160 individuals of both sexes. During the conducted census in 1850/51, only two families had a family surname, which changed in the early 1880s. According to the 1879 census in the settlement of Gaj (Turkish Pribidol), there were 171 inhabitants (93 male individuals) all of Bosniak nationality. There were 25 houses and an equal number of apartments in the settlement, with an average of 6.8 individuals per household. The 1895 census recorded 315 inhabitants (158 male individuals). There were 255 Bosniaks and 60 Orthodox inhabitants. There were a total of 50 houses (2 uninhabited) with 50 households - an average size of 6.3 members. Between 1850/51 and 1895, there was a significant increase in the population of the settlement of Pribidol, especially in the last census of 1895. This growth was conditioned by the settlement of Orthodox inhabitants, who constituted 25% of the total population in 1895. The list of residential property owners from 1880/84 identified three new mahallas (Kadrići, Podševar, and Živkovići) compared to the census of 1850/51. These Bosniak families of the settlement of Pribidol persisted throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, either through male or female lines, except for changes in the family surname among married female inhabitants. Some family surnames ceased to exist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, either due to the extinction of their male members or their emigration from the settlement of Pribidol. This particularly applies to families with the surnames Ahmetović, Halilović, and Mešanović. The number of households (families) increased among other Bosniak families until the mid-20th century, and some of their members moved to other settlements in the Podrinje region, primarily around the cities of Bijeljina, Bratunac, and Srebrenica.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the fall of marital fertility in Tasmania, the second settled Australian colony, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In this thesis I use quantitative and qualitative data to investigate when marital fertility fell, how it fell—that is, was the fall due to starting, stopping or spacing behaviours— and why it fell at this time. In looking at why fertility fell, I examine how my findings support theories of why fertility fell during the fertility transition. This study used digitised 19th century Tasmanian birth registration data plus many other sources to reconstitute birth histories of couples marrying in Tasmania in 1860, 1870, 1880 and 1890. This provides an individual-level data base which allows the use of both bivariate and multivariate methods of analysis. The qualitative analysis looks at the historical context of Australia, and of Tasmania specifically, and at historical sources such as witness statements from the 1903 NSW Royal Commission into the Decline in the Birth Rate, articles and items from the late 19th and early 20th century Tasmanian newspapers, stories about couples in the marriage cohorts and two diaries of upper class Tasmanian women. The thesis concludes that fertility started to decline in the late 1880s and the fertility decline became well established during the 1890s. The fall in fertility in late 19th century Tasmania was primarily due to the practice of stopping behaviour in the 1880 and 1890 cohorts, although birth spacing was also used as a strategy to limit fertility by the 1890 cohort. Since the thesis provides evidence to support most of the prominent theories of fertility transition, I conclude that the fertility transition was an integral part of the broader social and economic change that occurred in this period of history.

The paper examines the fall of marital fertility in Tasmania, the second settled Australian colony, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper investigates when marital fertility fell, whether the fall was mainly due to stopping or spacing behaviours, and why it fell at this time. The database used for the research was created by reconstituting the birth histories of couples marrying in Tasmania in 1860, 1870, 1880 and 1890, using digitised 19th century Tasmanian vital registration data plus many other sources. Despite Tasmania’s location on the other side of the world, the fertility decline had remarkable similarities with the historical fertility decline in continental Western Europe, England and other English-speaking countries. Fertility started to decline in the late 1880s and the fertility decline became well established during the 1890s. The fall in fertility in late 19th century Tasmania was primarily due to the practice of stopping behaviour in the 1880 and 1890 cohorts, although birth spacing was also used as a strategy by the 1890 cohort. The findings provide support for some of the prominent theories of fertility transition.

Heritage buildings and their surrounding are inseparably intertwined. Anthropological, cultural, symbolic, religious and technical factors are influencing the choice of constructive and architectural features and their interconnection. An important part of heritage buildings, influencing the general outlook, defining its aesthetics, shaping the relationship with the urban context and ultimately contributing to the skyline of the city is the roof. In recent years, numerous timber roof structure assessment methodologies have been developed, which assess the roof structure only by its structural features and state of conservation without taking the link between the roof and the building and its surrounding area into consideration. However, considering the principles of the European guilds, heritage buildings were built with no strict division between symbolic meaning, craftsmanship, architectural aesthetics and urban design methods. This results in a “Gesamtkunstwerk”, a total work of art, with harmonically interlinked features and fully connected to its surrounding, leading to a full aesthetic experience. All these features highly influence the aesthetics of the heritage building but also the shape and height of the roof. During the late 19th century and early 20th century, at the dawn of modern architecture and urban design, a bold and aesthetically conscious use of traditional crafts and methods took place in most European cities - the Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau, National Schools. This study aims to define how the relationship between building, roof and the urban context is changing in Timisoara during the late 19th and early 20th century. Ultimately the main scope of the paper is to identify the role of the roof structure in defining heritage structures built around the beginning of the 20th century through a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach.

Introduction. Currently, scientific interest in the representatives of the Crimean Tatar noble class has increased, and more and more attention is being paid to the topic of the daily life of the Muslim elite of Crimea in different periods of time. The range of issues studied in the article is an unexplored aspect in the history of the Taurida province in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The article examines the Murz estate of Crimea in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the eyes of its contemporary, Ismail Bey Gasprinsky, a reformist teacher and publisher who had a significant impact on the development of culture, education and public life of the majority of the Turkic-Muslim peoples of the Russian Empire. The goal of the research is to explore those aspects of social and private life of this class that most comprehensively inform about their hobbies, interests and lifestyle in general. It is these components that are vivid expressions of the spirit of the era and help to better understand the peculiarities of the daily life of representatives of noble Crimean Tatar families.The Materials and Methods. General scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, comparative historical and problem-chronological methods have been used in the research. The research is based on unpublished sources, such as articles from the newspaper Terjiman, as well as books stored in the Bakhchisarai Museum-Reserve.The Results. In accordance with the principles of historicism and objectivity, the author was the first to introduce previously unpublished sources on the history of the Crimean Tatar nobility into scientific circulation.Discussion and Conclusion. The social life of the Crimean Murz have been examined: attending official events, participating in agricultural exhibitions, charity events. The leisure time of the Crimean Tatar elite, wedding celebrations and entertainment have been considered. It’s been concluded that the intellectual heritage of the enlightener I. Gasprinsky is not only a valuable source on the history of the formation and development of national periodicals and the education system of the Turkic-Muslim population of the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but also provides insight into the virtually unexplored world of daily life in the Crimean Murz.

The article highlights the peculiarities of Kyiv Art Nouveau, its characteristic features, poetics and symbolism of architectural and decorative facades. The compositional construction of facades in the Art Nouveau style of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was considered, as well as the connection of the composition of the facade with the composition of architectural details and their placement on the facade. The problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to destruction, unsuccessful repairs and renovations was revealed. Facades of the Art Nouveau style, as well as facades of other styles of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. have mainly uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial composite facade construction schemes. The axes are distinguished by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers, and often changed scale and shape of windows. Symbolic decorative plastic is concentrated on the compositional axes, at the level of the first and last floors, woven into the structure of portals and attics. On facades in the Art Nouveau style, which mainly have an asymmetric composition with a two-axis facade construction scheme, symbolic decorative plastic is often found on the left compositional axis at the level of the second and last floors. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the features of the architectural and decorative plasticity of the facades of Kyiv's modern-style buildings, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure and semantic component of the facades of this style. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv modernism, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of building facades of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.