From syngas to food - high-moisture extrusion of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein into fibrous meat analogues.

With increasing global population and environmental concerns, the development of meat analogues, including plant-based proteins and cultivated meat, has become a solution for elevating global protein production and addressing sustainability issues. North America and Europe lead the meat analogue market, driven by elevated consumer awareness of health and environmental concerns. Under the influence of western diet, the Asian market is also poised for growth. While cultivated meat industry remains immature, advancements in production and cost reductions are expected to boost its market share over time. Although research on meat analogue methodology has increased in recent years, reviews that combine production methodologies and nutritional perspectives remain uncommon. This review comprehensively analyses the production methods, nutritional values, and market prospects of meat analogues. Meat analogue production has great potential in reducing water consumption, promoting sustainability, and improving animal welfare. Meat analogue provides high protein content and balanced amino acid profile, though certain micronutrient deficiencies due to production processes. This review outlines directions for further research in meat analogue production, emphasizing the importance of enhancing production efficiency and nutritional fortification to address food insecurity and environmental damage.

ABSTRACTExtrusion‐based 3D printing technology has emerged as a promising method for developing soy protein‐based meat analogs, addressing the urgent demand for sustainable and nutritious alternatives to traditional meat sources. There is a growing global interest in soy protein‐based diets, driven by environmental sustainability, health, and animal welfare concerns. Extrusion‐based 3D printing involves pushing soy protein pastes through a nozzle to develop layers that build up into three‐dimensional objects and enable the production of structures closely mimicking the texture and appearance of real meat. Soy proteins, characterized by their high protein content and balanced amino acid profile, are ideal for producing meat‐like textures and flavors. This review explores the application of extrusion and 3D printing technologies in soy protein‐based meat analog production, emphasizing their potential to replicate the sensory qualities of animal meat. It discusses the advantages and challenges associated with these technologies, including the optimization of printing parameters for consistency and quality. Rheological studies are conducted to achieve smooth extrusion and proper layer formation whereas integrating fats, fibers, and natural flavors to enhance texture and taste. The review provides an overview of extrusion processes, highlighting rheological studies optimizing the flow behavior of soy protein pastes for effective 3D printing. Additionally, it examines textural studies aimed at mimicking the mouthfeel and bite of real meat, as well as printing performance evaluated through shape retention, layer resolution, structural strength, and printing accuracy. Consumer acceptance of soy protein‐based meat analogs is also discussed, highlighting the familiarity with soy products and the increasing demand for plant‐based alternatives. The review concludes by considering prospects for these technologies, focusing on innovations in extrusion and 3D printing, market trends, and evolving consumer preferences.

Overcoming barriers to sustainable, healthy diets

Dietitians as change agents for promoting healthy and sustainable food systems

The potentials and challenges of using microalgae as an ingredient to produce meat analogues

Meat analogues have gained global attention as consumer demand increases for healthier and more sustainable food products. However, research aimed at replacing solid fats in meat analogues to lower saturated fat content remains very limited. Canola oil was structured with three natural waxes (candelilla wax, carnauba wax, and beeswax) and their potentials as solid fat replacers were evaluated for low saturated fat meat analogues. The wax-based oleogels retained solid fat at higher temperatures compared to coconut oil. Candelilla wax oleogels showed the highest hardness at room temperature. Upon melting, carnauba wax oleogels exhibited the highest viscosity and the greatest sensitivity to temperature changes, as evidenced by their highest activation energy. Replacement of coconut oil with wax-based oleogels did not significantly alter the visual appearance of meat analogues. Meat analogues with oleogels had significantly lower cooking loss, especially with carnauba wax oleogels. The hardness of coconut oil and oleogels was correlated to that of the corresponding meat analogues (R2 = 0.76). Additionally, oleogel-based analogues had a much healthier fatty acid profile, with lower saturated and higher unsaturated fat content, closely resembling canola oil. Therefore, this study demonstrated that wax-based oleogels were promising solid fat alternatives for developing plant-based meat analogues with enhanced cooking performance and healthier fatty acid composition.

Effect of black soldier fly larvae protein on the texture of meat analogues

BackgroundWith the change in consumers' lifestyles, the global demand for meat analogs is growing rapidly. However, soy has many drawbacks as a raw material to produce meat analogs, such as its allergy potential (glycinin and β‐conglycinin) and some unpredictable alterations in genetic DNA, proteins, and biochemical processing due to genetic modification. This paper aims to study the physicochemical and textural properties of meat analogs obtained under different pea protein contents and extrusion types to explore the potential of applying pea protein to meat analogs.ResultsHigh‐moisture meat analog (HMMA) is superior to low‐moisture meat analog (LMMA) based on the physical properties (integrity index and nitrogen solubility index) and texture properties (texture profile analysis and cutting strength). The higher the amount of pea protein added, the higher the degree of sample texturization. At low‐moisture extrusion cooking (LMEC), higher isolated pea protein content is accompanied by lower water holding capacity and higher texturization. Hydrophobic interactions play a slightly greater role than disulfide bonds in stabilizing the protein structure of the extrudates. The type of extrusion significantly affected the free sulfhydryl and disulfide bond content of the extrudate, while the source of raw material has an important relationship with protein solubility and free sulfhydryl content. Dodecyl sulfated gel electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) showed that most of the protein subunits remained after extrusion.ConclusionsExtrusion types and isolated pea protein contents showed significant effects on the properties of meat analogs, and isolated pea protein has great potential for application in the production of meat analogs.

SummaryConsumers worldwide want to improve their diets by consuming nutritional and eco‐friendly products in their food. The demand for plant‐based meat analogues (PBMA) has increased due to the adverse effects on animals, people, and the environment. ‘Meat analogue’ means to use a substitute for meat as the primary element. The rising desire for ‘good for you’ and ‘good for the planet’ is driving the demand for plant‐based meat alternatives. This manuscript describes the methods and orientation used to create meat analogues that mimic meat. The term ‘bottom‐up approach’ describes putting together a structure from the ground up. By systematically structuring proteins through the assembly of individual structural pieces, bottom‐up processes can approach the design of the meat. The top‐down method is more efficient and scalable, but it can only generate the required shape at massive scales. Therefore, this review discussed various production methods and their processing consequences on PBMAs proposed for creating sustainable foods to enhance their structural and techno‐functionality.

Meat analogue is a food product mainly made of plant proteins. It is considered to be a sustainable food and has gained a lot of interest in recent years. Hybrid meat is a next generation meat analogue prepared by the co-processing of both plant and animal protein ingredients at different ratios and is considered to be nutritionally superior to the currently available plant-only meat analogues. Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology is becoming increasingly popular in food processing. Three-dimensional food printing involves the modification of food structures, which leads to the creation of soft food. Currently, there is no available research on 3D printing of meat analogues. This study was carried out to create plant and animal protein-based formulations for 3D printing of hybrid meat analogues with soft textures. Pea protein isolate (PPI) and chicken mince were selected as the main plant protein and meat sources, respectively, for 3D printing tests. Then, rheology and forward extrusion tests were carried out on these selected samples to obtain a basic understanding of their potential printability. Afterwards, extrusion-based 3D printing was conducted to print a 3D chicken nugget shape. The addition of 20% chicken mince paste to PPI based paste achieved better printability and fibre structure.

Chapter 25 - Microalgae as a key ingredient in meat analogues

Hemp seeds stand as a rich source of globulins and albumins with all the essential amino acids and a balanced amino acid profile. Nevertheless, the potential of dry- and wet-extracted hemp protein concentrates to create plant-based, fibrous High Moisture Meat Analogues (HMMAs) remains unknown. In this study, five distinct hemp seed protein concentrates (55.9–76.4% protein, d.b.) produced at industrial scale using dry or wet fractionation were investigated and compared for their functionality and protein molecular properties. Furthermore, non-proteinaceous components were also analysed to elaborate on the underlying mechanisms for the structuring behaviour of hemp protein concentrates during wet extrusion. Although dry fractionation resulted in lower protein concentration, hemp proteins retained their native oligomeric state and their albumin fraction, thus showing higher surface hydrophobicity and solubility, and lower gelation concentration than wet-extracted counterparts. Furthermore, hemp samples were richer in bound polyphenols (>1800 mg/100 g), presumably phenolic acids, than the control pea sample (1363 mg/100 g), which resulted in dark colours in wet-extracted samples. Selected HMMA prototypes were developed and investigated for anisotropy, viscoelasticity, and proton NMR relaxometry. Visual and instrumental anisotropy dramatically increased with the use of hemp protein concentrates, from 0.69% using pea, to 0.98% and 1.41% using dry- and wet-fractionated fractionated hemp, respectively. Nonetheless, dry-fractionated hemp HMMA showed the highest proportion of free water in the system ( T 23 proton relaxation time), and an intermediate viscoelasticity between pea and wet-fractionated hemp HMMAs. Interestingly, SDS-PAGE revealed a significant contribution of disulphide bonds on hemp protein aggregation during processing. • Wet isolation decreased hemp protein surface hydrophobicity, solubility and lightness. • Hemp protein samples resulted in meat analogues with visible fibrous-like structures. • Dry-fractionated hemp extrudates had the highest proportion of free water. • Hemp extrudates showed up to 200% higher anisotropy than the pea protein counterpart. • Disulphide bonds played a key role on hemp protein aggregation during extrusion.

Given the projected global population growth and the associated increase in demand for sustainable and nutritious food options, plant‐based meat analogs are increasingly popular. Berry pomace, a by‐product of the juice and wine industry, emerges as a promising ingredient for enhancing these products. This paper comprehensively explores the innovative use of berry pomace in the development of plant‐based meat analogs. It highlights key components such as antioxidants, natural colorants, dietary fibers, oils, and micronutrients, which significantly contribute to enhancing the nutritional profiles, sensory qualities, and shelf stability of these analogs. Methods for incorporating berry pomace into plant‐based meats, including direct addition and the addition of berry pomace extract using innovative technologies, such as high‐moisture extrusion, 3D printing and emulsion methods, are discussed. Moreover, the challenges of integrating berry pomace into plant‐based meats are critically analyzed, focusing on variability in pomace composition, potential sensory impact, and the technological adaptations required for optimal use in food production. The potential of berry pomace to enhance both the quality and appeal of plant‐based meats is highlighted, underscoring its significant contribution to the development of more sustainable food systems by valorizing food waste to high‐value products.

Simple SummaryThis review article comprehensively explores black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), Hermetia illucens, as a sustainable alternative protein source in poultry nutrition. It discusses the ecological distribution, nutritional composition, and benefits of BSFL, including their high digestibility and nutrient availability. This article highlights the impact of BSFL on broiler growth performance, meat quality, and gut health and underscores the importance of proper inclusion levels for optimal results. In conclusion, this study emphasizes that BSFL offer a nutritionally rich, environmentally sustainable solution, presenting a viable alternative to conventional feed sources and contributing significantly to sustainable agriculture and food security.Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), have emerged as a promising feed ingredient in broiler chicken diets, known for their high protein content, nutritional richness, and environmental sustainability. This review examines the effects of integrating BSFL into broiler feeds, focusing on aspects such as growth performance, nutrient digestibility, physiological responses, and immune health. The ability of BSFL to transform waste into valuable biomass rich in proteins and lipids underscores their efficiency and ecological benefits. Protein levels in BSFL can range from 32% to 53%, varying with growth stage and diet, offering a robust source of amino acids essential for muscle development and growth in broilers. While the chitin in BSFL poses questions regarding digestibility, the overall impact on nutrient utilization is generally favorable. The inclusion of BSFL in diets has been shown to enhance growth rates, feed efficiency, and carcass quality in broilers, with the larvae’s balanced amino acid profile being particularly advantageous for muscle development. BSFL may also support gut health and immunity in broilers due to its bioactive components, potentially influencing the gut’s microbial composition and enhancing nutrient absorption and overall health. Moreover, the capacity of BSFL to efficiently convert organic waste into protein highlights their role as an environmentally sustainable protein source for broiler nutrition. Nonetheless, further research is necessary to fully understand the long-term effects of BSFL, ideal inclusion rates, and the impact of varying larval diets and rearing conditions. It is crucial for poultry producers to consult nutritionists and comply with local regulations when incorporating new feed ingredients like BSFL into poultry diets.

A meat analog, also called a meat substitute, mock meat, faux meat or imitation meat, approximates certain aesthetic qualities and chemical characteristics of specific types of meat. The consumption of vegetable proteins in food products has been increasing over the years because of animal diseases, global shortage of animal protein, strong demand for wholesome and religious (halal) food, and economic reasons. A meat-based diet requires a significantly greater amount of environmental resources per calorie compared to a more grain-based diet i.e. 2 to 15 kg plant foods are needed to produce 1 kg of meat. Developing new food products that are attractive to the consumers is a challenge. However, it is even more complex when these new foods are meant as a substitute for products that are highly appreciated and accepted, like meat. This challenge was accepted to develop new sustainable meat substitutes to reduce the negative environmental impact of industrial-scale meat production for human consumption. Happily there is an increasing importance of legume and oilseed proteins in the manufacturing of various functional food products due to their high-protein contents. However, the greatest obstacle to utilize these legumes and oilseeds is the presence of antinutrients, though these can successfully removed or inactivated by employing certain processing methods. Legumes and oilseeds provide well-balanced amino acid profiles when consumed with cereals. Soybean proteins, wheat gluten, cottonseed proteins, and other plant proteins have been used for preparation of meat anlogues successfully. Texturized vegetable proteins can substitute meat products while providing an economical, functional and high-protein food ingredient or can be consumed directly as a meat analogues. Meat analogues are successful because of their healthy image (cholesterol free), meat-like texture, and low cost. Mycoprotein a meat analog is fungal in origin and is used as a high-protein, low-fat, good texture and health-promoting food ingredient. Texturized vegetable proteins and a number of mycoprotein based products are accepted as analogues food. These are some constrains also in the production and consumption of meat analogues. Further research however is required to optimize molecular, nutritional, and functional properties of alternative protein sources to meat and to spread out the current knowledge to encourage the beneficial effects of alternative protein sources, as outlined in this review.