From Pest to Protein: Edible Cicadas and Their Leucaena Association in Monte Albán, Oaxaca, Mexico

Insects are highly efficient source of protein for humans, either through a direct consumption or as food supplements for many nations have already been using it. The high protein content is an indication that the insects can be of value in man and animal ration and can eventually replace higher animal protein usually absent in the diet of rural dwellers in developing countries. The protein content differs by species of insects, but generally is of a good quality and high digestibility. This review sheds a limelight on the prospect use of insects as an alternative source of human protein and medicine. However, the West refuses entomophagy as disgusting, businesses, industry, governments, and research will be positively impacted once the eating of insects is widely accepted. Replacing vertebrate livestock-derived foods and food ingredients with those derived from insects will also substantially improve the health of the earth’s natural environment. In this respect, the review explain the latest information on nutritional contents and supplements, insect as animal feed, efficiency, health value and insects as the future prospect of human meat.

Investigating alternative protein sources for ruminants in tropical regions is crucial due to distinct climatic conditions and limited resources. Scientists, acknowledging the challenges, are exploring locally accessible alternatives to develop cost-effective and sustainable protein supplements for ruminant nutrition, emphasizing the importance of understanding the nutritional composition for advancing livestock husbandry sustainability. The aim of this research is to elucidate alternative local protein sources for ruminants in tropical areas and assess their effectiveness in promoting sustainable production and enhancing ruminant nutrition. Protein feed sources are essential for providing amino acids to animals and producing animal products such as meat, milk, and wool. Inadequate protein in animal feed may have a detrimental impact on rumen fermentation and animal output. Therefore, alternative protein sources have received increased attention in order to replace the main protein source. The alternative protein sources in this review were divided into five categories: agricultural biomass, fodder shrubs, biological protein and plant weeds, insect protein and agro-industry biomass. Furthermore, plant secondary compounds found in alternative protein sources might be used to modulate rumen fermentation and improve animal performance. By focusing on regional sources of protein, feed costs are reduced while availability is raised. Based on this analysis, it can be concluded that there are a number of alternative protein sources that might be used in place of primary protein sources and that they could support ruminant production in the face of several animal feed crises. However, the potential use of any protein source should be assessed in light of the country’s availability and animal production practices.

Smallholder dairy farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are constrained by inadequate supply of good quality protein sources particularly during the dry season. Commercial protein concentrates are expensive and not readily accessible. Multipurpose forage legumes and other non-conventional protein sources available on-farm have been promoted as alternative cheaper protein sources. The major problem faced by smallholder dairy farmers however is the formulation of diets balanced for the key nutrients and also being cost-efficient. This paper presents a step by step spreadsheet based procedure of diet formulation for smallholder dairy production. The procedure ensures that the diet is balanced for all the key nutrients, is low-cost and the user has significant control over the formulation process. An example using this formulation method incorporating the fodder legumes Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena pallida, Leucaena esculenta, Acacia angustissima and Calliandra calothyrsus indicate a cost reduction from 10% on C. calothyrsus to 30% on L. diversifolia inclusion when compared to the conventional dairy meal concentrate (US$ 0.34/kg). This ration formulation method is recommended for use by livestock extension advisors and smallholder dairy farmers to quickly formulate low-cost diets using locally available feed sources so as to optimise the feeding of dairy animals at the farm level. Key words: Feed formulation, fodder trees, non-conventional protein sources, sustainable farming.

This paper reviews current knowledge on two feedstuffs, that is, insect meal and fish by-products, as alternatives to conventional animal protein sources. After an introductory part that highlights the need for sustainable development of animal production, the alternative protein sources are discussed. In particular, after providing some indications on their production and supply focussing on EU, a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis was performed to identify the key factors that could help or impair the development of both protein sources production sectors. Finally, future perspectives are presented. The use of processed animal proteins derived from insects in farmed fish feeding is recognised by the EU legislation that authorises the use of proteins from seven insect species and the allowed substrates to rear insects. Insects have several advantages in nutritional value and the amino acid composition of their proteins generally meet animal requirements for good growth and health. The SWOT analysis indicated that insect meals can be considered as feed functional ingredients with beneficial properties that depend on the insect species, rearing system adopted, and the substrate used for their growth. Insects are expected to be increasingly used as a replacement for conventional animal-derived proteins, especially in aquafeeds. In the section regarding fishery and aquaculture by-products, the potential use of raw materials obtained during seafood processing is discussed. Peptides and amino acids recovered from as hydrolysed proteins can be used in animal feeds to partially substitute conventional protein feedstuffs thus providing nutrients, bioactive compounds and feed additives for animals. The SWOT analysis identified opportunities and weaknesses. Both the alternative protein sources are promising alternative feed ingredients for livestock production. Highlights The sustainable development of animal production sector needs alternative protein sources for feeds formulation. Insects and fishery- and aquaculture by-products represent optimal alternative protein sources. A SWOT analysis has identified the key factors for the development of both protein sources production sectors.

In this paper, we have explored the possibility of substituting traditional meat products with an alternative source of protein (insects) in order to reduce human pressure on water. Insects, in fact, could represent a good alternative source of quality proteins and nutrients and they are already a very popular component of the diet of one third of the world’s population in approximately 80% of countries. In the study, we have taken into account only two species of edible insects (Tenebrio molitor and Zophobas morio mealworms), because they are already commercially produced even in Western countries, and for this reason it is possible to find specific data in literature about their diets. We have used the water footprint (WF) as a reliable indicator to calculate the volume of water required for production and to compare different products. The final aim of the work is, in fact, to evaluate the WF of the production of edible insects with a focus on water consumption associated with protein content, in order to make a comparison with other animal protein sources. We have demonstrated that, from a freshwater resource perspective, it is more efficient to obtain protein through mealworms rather than other traditional farmed animals.

Epidemiological studies of the population, changing dietary trends and climate change are the main factors influencing consumer choices. Although food overproduction and overconsumption are observed in the world, the proper nutrition of the population poses a problem. Despite satisfying bodily needs in terms of energy requirements, it is becoming increasingly difficult to balance diets with essential ingredients, such as protein. Traditional sources of proteins, due to changing dietary trends, are no longer attractive to consumers. Hence, global research is shifting towards alternative sources of protein. Therefore, this study aims to identify alternative sources of food protein from the perspective of the transformation of the food market. Scientific research, using innovative technologies, is targeting the previously underestimated sources of alternative raw materials and products, whose biological activity often astonishes the researchers themselves.

Sixty adult Barki ewes (2.0-3.0 years old and 38.89 ± 1.02 kg average body weight) were used to investigate the effect of feeding Nigella sativa meal as an alternative source of protein on the reproductive and productive performance of Barki ewes. Animals were randomly assigned into equal three groups (20 each). The first group (G1) served as control and fed the basal diet contain 20% cotton seed meal and 6% soya bean meal as a source of ration protein, while the second group (G2) fed diet contained 13.5% of Nigella sativa meal (NSM) and 8% soya bean meal as a source of ration protein. The Third group (G3) fed diet contained 25% of NSM as a source of ration protein. All groups were offered berssem (Trifolium alexandrnum) hay ad libitum, and rations were adjusted monthly to cover their requirements during their different physiological status.Reproductive traits in terms of conception and lambing rates, abortion and stillbirth rates, number of lambs born alive and weaned and mortality rate from birth to weaning were measured during this study. Birth and weaning weights as well as body weight changes of ewes recorded during different physiological stages. Milk yield and composition were also determined. Results indicated that conception and lambing rates were insignificantly higher in G1 and G2 compared with G3. While number of lambs born alive was higher in G2 and G3 than control group (19 and 18 Vs. 17 lambs for G2, G3 and G1 respectively). Birth and weaning weights were significantly higher in G3 then G2 compared with control group. G3 recorded higher milk production during lactation period (627.29 ml/h/d) then G2 (601.33 ml/h/d) while control group recorded the lowest value (587.33 ml/h/d).Progesterone profile in the three experimental groups was found to follow the normal pattern reported in the literature. Progesterone levels insignificantly increased in control group than other two groups during pregnancy, especially during late pregnancy and decreased to the basal values after parturition. In conclusion, we can use NSM as an alternative source of ration protein to improve reproduction and production efficiency of Barki ewes under arid conditions of North Western Coast of Egypt.

Alternative cheap sources of protein in poultry diets are desired hinged on feed safety, production cost and nutritional quality. The preceding review looks at how baobab seeds have featured as an alternative protein source in poultry diets. This is on the backdrop that the cost of compound feeds continue to be on the rise due to the high expense of conventional protein sources used in manufacturing animal feed. Soya bean has been the predominantly used and most expensive conventional protein source used in the manufacturing of compound feeds. It is suffice to suggest that there is an urgent need to accord adequate consideration to alternative cheap protein sources, and baobab seeds are one such alternatives. Previous studies have shown that baobab seeds have excellent nutritive value, despite containing inconsiderable levels of anti-nutritional factors. Baobab seeds contain some anti-nutritional factors, such as phytate (2%), oxalate (10%), tannins and saponins (3-7%) which reduces digestive efficiency and utilization of dietary nutrients in poultry. However, these anti-nutritional factor levels are generally assumed to be low enough not to cause any adverse effects in avian species. The seeds have a protein value that ranges from 20-36 % CP and an energy level of 4.19-16.75 kJ/kg, which is comparable to sunflower meal (24.4-36.7 CP and 19.1-20.2 kJ/kg) and soybean hulls (10.5-19.2 CP and 17.5-18.7 kJ/kg). It is apparent from previous studies that inclusion of baobab seeds at 5-10% level in poultry diets improves performance of broilers in terms of growth rate. Inclusion of the baobab seeds as partial replacers of soybean meal can be cost effective by inevitability reducing the escalating costs of poultry feed.

The global demand for protein is on the rise owing to the exponential increase in the world population and to meet the global protein requirements, it is imperative to seek alternative sources of proteins in farm animal feeding. Recognizing the importance of proteins and the fact that a major portion of human protein requirements is derived from livestock in the form of meat, milk, and eggs, the available protein-feeding stuff in the form of soybean meal cannot be regarded as sufficient for feeding to livestock. Oil seeds such as rapeseed meal and canola meal have a crude protein content of 30%-40% and are widely used and hence a potential alternative protein source to soybean meal. Going forward, Grain legumes such as peas, faba beans, and lupins, another alternative source of proteins have the potential to replace traditional protein feeds completely or partially such as bone and fish meals. Duckweed with a protein content of 20%-45% is another plant-based potential protein source that can be employed in livestock feeding particularly pigs owing to its huge potential as a growth promoter as evidenced by studies in pigs and piglets. Because of their nutritional qualities and possible environmental advantages, insects represent another class of alternative protein sources that have enormous potential to function as sustainable protein sources. Several insect species have been assessed for use as animal feeds; the most promising ones include the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor, TM), the common house fly (MD), and the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, HI). Byproducts from aquaculture and fisheries are abundant in macro- and micronutrients, and their utilisation can provide fishmeal and fish oil, which can then be further adapted for use as a source of protein in animal nutrition. Employing microalgae as an alternative source of protein in animal feeding is somehow a new concept. Many nutritional and toxicological studies have demonstrated the potential of algae biomass as a valued feed supplement or substitute for conventional protein sources such as soybean meal. While these alternative protein sources in livestock feeding may serve as useful tools, parameters such as feed safety and acceptability should be monitored based on feed safety regulations.

The creation of aquatic organisms it is constantly growing and with this comes the need to meet this demand with the increased production of inputs such as feed for aquaculture. Fish nutrition is mainly characterized by the use of fish meal and oil for the manufacture of rations for their food. Soybean bran is the second most used ingredient as a source of protein in the production of feed for aquaculture. However, these ingredients compete with other feed segments, increasing cost or reducing market availability. Therefore, alternative sources of protein must be studied and developed to meet this demand. In this sense, insects present themselves as sources of high quality protein, in addition to fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. Although there is a problem with large-scale production to meet the demand of the feed market, the ease of breeding certain species of insects is capable of making this reality possible. Thus, insects can be a likely alternative protein source in fish feed, replacing conventional sources. This review aims to evaluate the inclusion of mealworm in the fish diet, in terms of performance and discuss the results obtained.

Maggot (Black soldier fly larvae) as an alternative source of protein on feed can increase fish productivity. The research aims to study maggot flour as an alternative source of protein in feed on the growth, structure of the intestine organs and skeletal muscles of Mutiara catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822). The research used 144 Mutiara catfish that were kept for 21 days. The research used a completely randomized design consisting of 4 groups, namely 0% maggot in feed (Control), 25% maggot in feed (P1), 50% maggot in feed (P2), 75% maggot in feed (P3). The parameters consist of the growth, the structure of intestine and skeletal muscle of Mutiara catfish. Growth observations consist of measurements of the absolute length and weight of the fish. Intestine observations consisted of length and weight, as well as tissue structure consisting of villi height, crypt depth, villi / crypt ratio and villi area area. Skeletal muscle observations consist of muscle weight and tissue structure consisting of the diameter and area of muscle fibers. Data analysis was performed with one-way anova, followed by the Duncan Test. The results showed that 75% maggot feed gave significant results on absolute weight, structure of intestine and muscle organs compared to other treatments (P <0.05). The absolute length did not provide a significant difference between treatments (P> 0.05). The conclusion shows that 75% maggot feed can be used as an alternative source of feed protein because it can increase the growth, structure of the intestine organs and skeletal muscles of the Mutiara catfish.

Nutritional deficiency is still a problem faced by many families in Indonesia. One of the important issues is the level of protein consumption that is still below the minimum required standard. Edible insects could be one alternative of protein sources since their availability in the nature is quite abundant. This paper analyses six edible species of both cultivated and wild insects for its proximate compositions to measure their nutritional value. The cultivated insects consist of cricket (Gryllus sp.), giant mealworm (Zophobas morio F.), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), and silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), and the wild insects consist of javanese grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis Burm.) and paddy locust (Nomadacris succincta L.). Results shows that the nutritional composition of insects varies widely. Each 100g of dry weight contains of 32.59-76.69% of protein, 6.9-29.47% of fat, 0.92-30.76% of carbohydrate, 2.80-5.79% of ash, 407.34- 517.50 kcal of energy, and minerals about 24.82-31.22 mg of calcium (Ca) and 3.15-4.1 mg of iron (Fe). Some species such as grasshoppers, silkworm pupae and crickets have high protein content which potentially can be utilized as an alternate protein sources to fight against malnutrition and to increase nutritious food consumption. Efforts should be made to encourage the consumption of edible insects as an alternative source of protein. It is especially important to those who live in and around the forest, since the forest area is an excellent habitat for various species of insects.

Nutritional deficiency is still a problem faced by many families in Indonesia. One of the important issues is the level of protein consumption that is still below the minimum required standard. Edible insects could be one alternative of protein sources since their availability in the nature is quite abundant. This paper analyses six edible species of both cultivated and wild insects for its proximate compositions to measure their nutritional value. The cultivated insects consist of cricket (Gryllus sp.), giant mealworm (Zophobas morio F.), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), and silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), and the wild insects consist of javanese grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis Burm.) and paddy locust (Nomadacris succincta L.). Results shows that the nutritional composition of insects varies widely. Each 100g of dry weight contains of 32.59-76.69% of protein, 6.9-29.47% of fat, 0.92-30.76% of carbohydrate, 2.80-5.79% of ash, 407.34- 517.50 kcal of energy, and minerals about 24.82-31.22 mg of calcium (Ca) and 3.15-4.1 mg of iron (Fe). Some species such as grasshoppers, silkworm pupae and crickets have high protein content which potentially can be utilized as an alternate protein sources to fight against malnutrition and to increase nutritious food consumption. Efforts should be made to encourage the consumption of edible insects as an alternative source of protein. It is especially important to those who live in and around the forest, since the forest area is an excellent habitat for various species of insects.

Nutritional deficiency is still a problem faced by many families in Indonesia. One of the important issues is the level of protein consumption that is still below the minimum required standard. Edible insects could be one alternative of protein sources since their availability in the nature is quite abundant. This paper analyses six edible species of both cultivated and wild insects for its proximate compositions to measure their nutritional value. The cultivated insects consist of cricket (Gryllus sp.), giant mealworm (Zophobas morio F.), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), and silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), and the wild insects consist of javanese grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis Burm.) and paddy locust (Nomadacris succincta L.). Results shows that the nutritional composition of insects varies widely. Each 100g of dry weight contains of 32.59-76.69% of protein, 6.9-29.47% of fat, 0.92-30.76% of carbohydrate, 2.80-5.79% of ash, 407.34- 517.50 kcal of energy, and minerals about 24.82-31.22 mg of calcium (Ca) and 3.15-4.1 mg of iron (Fe). Some species such as grasshoppers, silkworm pupae and crickets have high protein content which potentially can be utilized as an alternate protein sources to fight against malnutrition and to increase nutritious food consumption. Efforts should be made to encourage the consumption of edible insects as an alternative source of protein. It is especially important to those who live in and around the forest, since the forest area is an excellent habitat for various species of insects.

Nutritional deficiency is still a problem faced by many families in Indonesia. One of the important issues is the level of protein consumption that is still below the minimum required standard. Edible insects could be one alternative of protein sources since their availability in the nature is quite abundant. This paper analyses six edible species of both cultivated and wild insects for its proximate compositions to measure their nutritional value. The cultivated insects consist of cricket (Gryllus sp.), giant mealworm (Zophobas morio F.), yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), and silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), and the wild insects consist of javanese grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis Burm.) and paddy locust (Nomadacris succincta L.). Results shows that the nutritional composition of insects varies widely. Each 100g of dry weight contains of 32.59-76.69% of protein, 6.9-29.47% of fat, 0.92-30.76% of carbohydrate, 2.80-5.79% of ash, 407.34- 517.50 kcal of energy, and minerals about 24.82-31.22 mg of calcium (Ca) and 3.15-4.1 mg of iron (Fe). Some species such as grasshoppers, silkworm pupae and crickets have high protein content which potentially can be utilized as an alternate protein sources to fight against malnutrition and to increase nutritious food consumption. Efforts should be made to encourage the consumption of edible insects as an alternative source of protein. It is especially important to those who live in and around the forest, since the forest area is an excellent habitat for various species of insects.