Abstract
In recent debates on offensive language in participatory online spaces, the term ‘hate speech’ has become especially prominent. Originating from a legal context, the term usually refers to violent threats or expressions of prejudice against particular groups on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation. However, due to its explicit reference to the emotion of hate, it is also used more colloquially as a general label for any kind of negative expression. This ambiguity leads to misunderstandings in discussions about hate speech and challenges its identification. To meet this challenge, this article provides a modularized framework to differentiate various forms of hate speech and offensive language. On the basis of this framework, we present a text annotation study of 5,031 user comments on the topic of immigration and refuge posted in March 2019 on three German news sites, four Facebook pages, 13 YouTube channels, and one right-wing blog. An in-depth analysis of these comments identifies various types of hate speech and offensive language targeting immigrants and refugees. By exploring typical combinations of labeled attributes, we empirically map the variety of offensive language in the subject area ranging from insults to calls for hate crimes, going beyond the common ‘hate/no-hate’ dichotomy found in similar studies. The results are discussed with a focus on the grey area between hate speech and offensive language.
Highlights
In recent years, the use of offensive language in participatory online spaces has increasingly become the subject of public debate and scientific research in many countries (Keipi, Näsi, Oksanen, & Räsänen, 2017)
We focus on the results of a qualitative content analysis of German user comments posted on the topic of immigration and refuge
While our methodological approach is suitable for analyzing hate speech against various groups, the results presented in this article are limited to hate speech against refugees and immigrants
Summary
The use of offensive language in participatory online spaces has increasingly become the subject of public debate and scientific research in many countries (Keipi, Näsi, Oksanen, & Räsänen, 2017). The term ‘hate speech’ receives much attention as it has a long tradition in a legal context where it is associated with hate crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity (Bleich, 2011). In this context, the term refers to violent threats or expressions of prejudice against particular groups on the basis of race, religion, or sexual orientation. The term is often used as a general label for various kinds of negative expression by users, including insults and even harsh criticism This ambiguity leads to fundamental misunderstandings in the discussion about hate speech and challenges its identification, for example, in online user comments
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