From Ilunum to Its Territory: Approximation to the Potential Mobility and Passability of the Territory of the Roman City of Ilunum Through the Roman Occupation

THE manufacture of cloth was an occupation widely scattered throughout England, and English textiles were dispersed over a large area of the adjacent continent as well as at home. In contrast to this the wholesale market for cloths consumed both at home and abroad was always to a high degree concentrated at London, the nodal point for internal communications since the Roman occupation. Besides, the shortest and most convenient line of access for the transport of cloths lay from the mouth of the Thames to the Rhine delta, along a trade route that by 1500 was already long established and organised. Thus the nerve-centre of the cloth trade on the English side was inevitably sited at London, where in the first decade of the sixteenth century at least 61 per cent of the cloth exports of England was being shipped. A generation later, in the decade 1534–44, this proportion had swollen to over 84 per cent and was soon to increase. In the fiscal year 1568–9 as much as 93 per cent of the cloth customs duty was collected at London.42 There were fluctuations and a long-term tendency for the overwhelming preponderance of the City to recede. But it has been estimated that in the first forty years of the seventeenth century about three quarters of the total woollen textile exports still passed through London despite some loss of West Riding trade to Hull and despite the opening of a trade in Devonshire cloths direct from Exeter to the Netherlands which provoked some resentment in the City.

This thesis will examine the significance of the defense system that was a result of the Libyan wars against the Romans, Byzantines, and the Vandals. For economic and strategic reasons these nations were involved in long and bitter wars which lasted over six centuries. The policy of the long distance military expeditions, which was the main instrument of the Romans in subduing the natives in the early Empire, had failed to achieve its goals. Thus, the alternative was to erect a network of roads and forts in strategic spots such as water points, commanding hills, along the caravan routes and on the edges of fertile wadis. In fact, neither the roads, which were very well fortified, nor the massive front forts had solved the frontier problems, thus the Romans had no choice other than to leave the frontiers to be guarded by the natives themselves. To this end several civilian settlements (fortified farms) were established on the fertile wadis. "While a mixture of people coexisted in these fortified farms, the archaeological remains show that the prevailing culture belonged to the Libyan natives.

Roman architecture has long been a subject of interest for researchers in the fields of history and archaeology, as the Romans were able to leave a lasting cultural imprint wherever they established settlements. One of the most remarkable features of this architecture lies in the diversity of its elements and the precision of its details, particularly in the artistic expression of places of worship within the Roman city. During the Roman occupation, North Africa became a prominent stage for such architecture, with some of its ancient cities serving as true repositories of Roman architectural traditions. Cities such as Timgad, Thubursicum, and Lambaesis clearly reflect the characteristics of these structures. The types of buildings varied according to their function, including temples, altars, shrines, tombs, and funerary monuments. The Romans devoted significant effort to the construction of these buildings, carefully highlighting the role of their gods in daily life.

This chapter takes advantage of the opportunity opened by new remotely-sensed data on early modern (fifteenth to eighteenth centuries AD) caravan routes in the Republic of Afghanistan to review the nature and significance of caravan routes to early modern economies. The caravanserai network in Afghanistan demonstrates the infrastructural role of caravan routes in tying together the frontiers of early modern empires. In particular, the caravanserais of Afghanistan demonstrate a ‘meeting on the edge’ by institutions of political economy developed within both the Safavid Persian empire (1501–1722) and the Mughal empire (1520s–1757). In addition to historical maps, we draw on the descriptions of travelers, from merchants and mercantile agents to the agents of the British Afghan Boundary Commission, who described both sites and routes in the course of their explorations. In our broader discussion of the Afghan and early modern routes we are reliant on data sources which are each in their own way ‘remote’ – satellite and aerial imagery on the one hand, and the accounts of early modern and modern travelers on the other. Combined, they contribute to a brief introduction to the politics, mechanics and cultures of caravans in early modern Central Asia.

BOOK NOTICES 489 the collection come from English and Japanese, this volume is useful to linguists who can benefit from this focus, but it is also valuable to anyone who is interested in contrasting formal and functional accounts in general. [Noriko Watanabe, University of Wisconsin, Madison.] Sociolinguistics in Japanese contexts. By Takesi Sibata (Contribution to the sociology of language 81.) Ed. by Tetsuya Kunthtro, FuMio Inoue and Daniel Long. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999. Pp 489. The book is a collection of selected papers by Takesi Sibata, whom many regard as the most influential sociolinguist in Japan. S's work is a substantial contribution to the field of sociolinguistics at large, especially to descriptive dialectology. The majority of his work, however, is not available in English because he published in Tapanese. The editors have brought his work into English with this volume. The original publication dates of the papers range from 1952 to 1987. The book contains 24 papers grouped into five major sections. The introductory chapter by the editors describes the significance of S's work. The book also includes a complete bibliography of S's work up to 1996. The first section, "The study of sociolinguistics ' (6-87), four papers, introduces the concept of gengo seikatsu 'language life' which represents the sensitivity and detailed attention Tapanese sociolinguistics has given to the study of language as it relates to daily life. The concept stems from S's philosophy that language is the object of study, but how people use the language to live their lives is the focus of attention. ? 24 hour survey of the language life of the Tapanese' represents this type of thorough descriptive approach. The second section (91-180) is on honorifics, whose use is inevitably affected by such contextual factors as social role identities of the users and social relations between them. The five papers in the section examine honorifics in general, a polite prefix o-, acquisition of the honorific term haha 'mother', and address terms and kinship. The third section (183-273) is on language change. "The rise and fall of dialects' offers an indepth account of the sociopsychological politics of regional varieties. An historical and theoretical explication of kyootsuu-go 'Common Language' will interest a wide range of readers and will compel them to reexamine the meaning of 'Standard Tapanese'. The section also includes studies on the development of a regional common language in Hokkaido, an area with a relatively short history of major settlement by Tapanese speakers. 'Sociolect and idiolect', the fourth section (277-370), deals with how newly introduced expressions spread in a group and who the initiators, 'language bosses' in S's terms, are. The last section, 'Norms of language' (371-93), has three papers that contain general discussions of the role of language norms including phonological, grammatical, and pragmatic norms. Written for a newspaper column, the last, short article on discriminatory expressions gives S's thoughts on taboo words, that is, policing of language use. Overall, the strength ofthis volume is that, because many ofthe papers are written in plain, nontechnical language, it is readily accessible to readers outside Japanese linguistics or even outside linguistics. In addition, because S's work spans the period in which many social and linguistic changes occurred, some of the papers can be read as historical documentation of language life in Japan. [Noriko Watanabe, University of Wisconsin, Madison.] Cheyenne major constituent order. By Elena M. Leman. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1999. Pp. 95. In this reworking ofher University ofOregon master 's thesis, Elena Leman investigates the factors that might be at work in determining word order in Cheyenne , a 'free word-order' language ofthe Algonquian family. She examines both previously collected texts (traditional narratives) and experimentally elicited data to test various hypotheses. The book is organized into six chapters plus a conclusion and appendices. The first chapter is a very brief introduction to the goals of the study, while Ch. 2 is a five-page crash course on Algonquian morphosyntax , with sections devoted to obviation, verb agreement, and basic grammatical roles. The meat of the study begins with Ch. 3, ? typological perspective '. Here L examines various proposals to explain word order...

BOOK NOTICES 489 the collection come from English and Japanese, this volume is useful to linguists who can benefit from this focus, but it is also valuable to anyone who is interested in contrasting formal and functional accounts in general. [Noriko Watanabe, University of Wisconsin, Madison.] Sociolinguistics in Japanese contexts. By Takesi Sibata (Contribution to the sociology of language 81.) Ed. by Tetsuya Kunthtro, FuMio Inoue and Daniel Long. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999. Pp 489. The book is a collection of selected papers by Takesi Sibata, whom many regard as the most influential sociolinguist in Japan. S's work is a substantial contribution to the field of sociolinguistics at large, especially to descriptive dialectology. The majority of his work, however, is not available in English because he published in Tapanese. The editors have brought his work into English with this volume. The original publication dates of the papers range from 1952 to 1987. The book contains 24 papers grouped into five major sections. The introductory chapter by the editors describes the significance of S's work. The book also includes a complete bibliography of S's work up to 1996. The first section, "The study of sociolinguistics ' (6-87), four papers, introduces the concept of gengo seikatsu 'language life' which represents the sensitivity and detailed attention Tapanese sociolinguistics has given to the study of language as it relates to daily life. The concept stems from S's philosophy that language is the object of study, but how people use the language to live their lives is the focus of attention. ? 24 hour survey of the language life of the Tapanese' represents this type of thorough descriptive approach. The second section (91-180) is on honorifics, whose use is inevitably affected by such contextual factors as social role identities of the users and social relations between them. The five papers in the section examine honorifics in general, a polite prefix o-, acquisition of the honorific term haha 'mother', and address terms and kinship. The third section (183-273) is on language change. "The rise and fall of dialects' offers an indepth account of the sociopsychological politics of regional varieties. An historical and theoretical explication of kyootsuu-go 'Common Language' will interest a wide range of readers and will compel them to reexamine the meaning of 'Standard Tapanese'. The section also includes studies on the development of a regional common language in Hokkaido, an area with a relatively short history of major settlement by Tapanese speakers. 'Sociolect and idiolect', the fourth section (277-370), deals with how newly introduced expressions spread in a group and who the initiators, 'language bosses' in S's terms, are. The last section, 'Norms of language' (371-93), has three papers that contain general discussions of the role of language norms including phonological, grammatical, and pragmatic norms. Written for a newspaper column, the last, short article on discriminatory expressions gives S's thoughts on taboo words, that is, policing of language use. Overall, the strength ofthis volume is that, because many ofthe papers are written in plain, nontechnical language, it is readily accessible to readers outside Japanese linguistics or even outside linguistics. In addition, because S's work spans the period in which many social and linguistic changes occurred, some of the papers can be read as historical documentation of language life in Japan. [Noriko Watanabe, University of Wisconsin, Madison.] Cheyenne major constituent order. By Elena M. Leman. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1999. Pp. 95. In this reworking ofher University ofOregon master 's thesis, Elena Leman investigates the factors that might be at work in determining word order in Cheyenne , a 'free word-order' language ofthe Algonquian family. She examines both previously collected texts (traditional narratives) and experimentally elicited data to test various hypotheses. The book is organized into six chapters plus a conclusion and appendices. The first chapter is a very brief introduction to the goals of the study, while Ch. 2 is a five-page crash course on Algonquian morphosyntax , with sections devoted to obviation, verb agreement, and basic grammatical roles. The meat of the study begins with Ch. 3, ? typological perspective '. Here L examines various proposals to explain word order...

Reviews William J. Slater, ed. Roman Theater and Society. E. Togo Salmon Papers, I. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1996. Pp. xiv + 186 + 8 plates. $42.50. In September 1993, McMaster University held its first E. Togo Salmon Conference, a series named for the distinguished historian whose bequest makes it possible and dedicated to topics that require, in the editor's words, "the confrontation of archaeological with literary evidence in constructing ancient history." The first of these Salmon Conferences dealt with theater in the Roman world. This volume presents seven of its papers. A summary first and then some comments. I.E.J. Jory, "The Drama of the Dance: Prolegomena to an Iconography of Imperial Pantomime" (1-27). Ancient pantomime was an entertainment in which a solo dancer in mask and costume performed the story of a myth to the accompaniment of musicians and chorus. Though quite a popular art form, it is now little understood by scholars of antiquity . Jory here reviews the material evidence for what pantomime dancers looked like and how they performed, which is largely a matter of isolating medallions, mosaics, and figurines that represent masks with closed mouths and realistic features and dancers who are dressed in such masks and ankle-length robes. The discussion of these artifacts, which is very well illustrated, then leads to important discussions of the difference between solo and choral dancing in antiquity and the different attitudes toward dance in Greek and Roman societies. 2.W. D. Lebek, "Moneymaking on the Roman Stage" (29^48). Republican theater, as everyone knows but too often forgets, was a commercial venture for performers and impresarios. Lebek reviews the evidence for the most successful such practitioners in the last two centuries B. C. in the city of Rome. He discusses the early comic writers Plautus and Terence, the tragic poets Ennius and (rather later) Varius, and then goes on to consider the famous actors of Cicero's day, Roscius and Aesopus, the success of pantomime and mime, the role of women in Roman theater, and the careers of Laberius and Publilius Syrus. 3.K. M. Coleman, "Ptolemy Philadelphus and the Roman Amphitheater " (49-68). In the winter of 275/74, Ptolemy Philadelphus, the second Macedonian king of Egypt, staged a grand procession in honor of his father and predecessor, Ptolemy Soter, at the second celebration of a festival called the Ptolemaieia. Coleman analyzes four elements of Ptolemy's display which she believes came to be echoed in the spectacles of later Roman amphitheaters. These are the use of mythological motifs and figures, the distribution of gifts to spectators, the development of elaborate and sophisticated technology, and the presentation of wild animals. Ptolemy's display made the Egyptian festival a demonstration of both the wealth and extent of his domain. It was also, however, a largely passive display of exoticism, and Coleman makes the inter589 590Comparative Drama esting point that the Roman tendency in developing these elements was to make them active, since for the Romans "the natural world was a theater that provided a spectacle for humankind." 4.J. C. Edmondson, "Dynamic Arenas: Gladiatorial Presentations in the City of Rome and the Construction of Roman Society during the Early Empire" (69-112). Gladiatorial shows at Rome were originally held as part of funeral celebrations, and though they could attract large crowds they were by nature activities in the private sphere. Only with Augustus did they become entertainments on the public calendar and come under imperial patronage. Edmondson concentrates on the production of these shows at Rome in the period from Augustus through Trajan (i.e., c.30 B.C-A.D. 117), when our sources are the richest. He shows how the arenas themselves were organized to reflect the social hierarchy of their time through seating by social standing and by regional and national groups. Seating privileges could even be used to set forth social and political agendas. 5.Elizabeth R. Gebhard, "The Theater and the City" (113-27). The acoustics and sightlines of ancient theaters made them ideal venues —generally the best in town—for a wide range of civic displays, including festivals, political demonstrations, and religious ceremonies, as well as what...

The chapter provides an in-depth study of the urban and rural population of Hispania Tarraconensis in the first century ce, comparing it with other provinces of the Roman Empire and earlier and later periods. A nuanced diachronic evolution of the population and urbanization in the province that aims to create a comprehensive overview of the urban centres of the Iberian peninsula is presented. The chapter also looks into the urbanism and different settlement typologies in the province, paying especial attention to secondary agglomerations. The rank-size analysis is employed to assess the settlement systems, allowing for a comparison between the Iron Age and Roman periods, and showing that the pre-existing urban framework, road network, and navigable rivers heavily influence the settlement pattern in the Early Empire.

During the study of economic terms, it has been confirmed that financial terminology in Azerbaijan and in the east has ancient history. As Azerbaijan is located in the favorable strategic position, on the trade routes, trade relations have been developed rapidly here. The economical lexicon comprises a special, voluminous layer of lexicon. From time to time, this terminology area is subject to modifications, it is renewed, enriched through new lexical units. The article deals with the establishment, formation and development of financial terminology in Azerbaijan. The path passed by the financial terms from the ancient times up to present is analyzed and studied. The origin, development path and current condition of the financial terms used both in daily life and in the literary works and in the media is reviewed. The role of economic and trade relations in this area is interpreted through the historical stages. New expressions and notions emerged in our language as a result of fundamental economic, social and political, cultural reforms, public and social changes that have emerged since our country gained independence have contributed to the enrichment of our vocabulary fund, especially terminology and the economic terminology of our language has grown rapidly in the last twenty years. The impact of Turkology congresses and seminars on the terminology creation process in Azerbaijan was also in the focus of attention. Great attention and care of the head of the state Mr.IlhamAliyev to the development of Azerbaijani language is specially emphasized. The economic terminological layer of our language is developed, enriched and renovated rapidly, the financial terminology is enriched by new financial terms during the present development period of our Republic and expansion of economic – political relations with the most countries of the world. Establishment of Terminology Commission in Azerbaijan is one of the most important steps in thisarea. As if, a breakthrough has happened in the terminology system of Azerbaijan Republic by the establishment of this Commission and rapid development dynamics is observed. Different terminological dictionaries are prepared and published for all fields. It is important to state specially the role of media and textbooks in the development of terminology in Azerbaijan. It is true that there are some improvements in this area, but there are still unrevealed issues that are not yet clear in the textbooks. It shall be considered normal, as the formation of new economic relations in Azerbaijan requires the creation of new financial and banking terms. As mentioned above, it is realized either by the internal capacities of the language or words borrowed from other languages. Especially, the rapid development of the world economy, transition to the market economy, expansion of the banking system network, enhanced economic relations with foreign countries and signed various agreements have increased the interest in this area in the recent years. Access to the world market, along with economic accomplishments, causes to mass word flow to the lexicon and creation of new terminological units in every language. Therefore, currently, the financial terminology is distinguished by its special role in the lexical system of the language. At the same time, the close cooperation of the vast majority of the population with the banking system has contributed to the further expansion of the scope of financial terms.

Throughout history, how has the sea served as a site for cross-cultural exchange, trade and migration? As historians, how do the fields of naval history, maritime history and oceanic history intersect? 56 experts, 48 chapters and over 1,700 pages explore how representation and understanding of the sea has developed over 2,500 years of cultural and natural history. Individual volume editors ensure the cohesion of the whole, and to make it as easy as possible to use, chapter titles are identical across each of the volumes. This gives the choice of reading about a specific period in one of the volumes, or following a theme across history by reading the relevant chapter in each of the six. The six volumes cover: 1. – Antiquity (500 BCE – 800 CE); 2. – Medieval Age (1800 – 1450); 3. – Renaissance (1450 – 1650); 4. – Age of Enlightenment (1650 – 1800); 5. – Age of Empire (1800 – 1920); 6 – Modern Age (1920 – 2000+). Each volumes adopts the same thematic structure, covering: Knowledges, Practices, Networks, Islands and Shores, Travelers, Representation, Imaginary Worlds, and Conflicts, enabling readers to trace one theme throughout history, as well as gaining a thorough overview of each individual period.

Archaeological interventions along Lisbon's riverside have revealed critical insights into the city's transformation from a maritime beach to an industrialized port zone. Excavations at the former Praia da Boa Vista revealed three ships (Boa Vista 1, 2, and 5), probably abandoned on the old Boa Vista beach between the last half of the seventeenth century and first half of the eighteenth century. These contexts, linked to the Atlantic trade and intense port activity, included botanical remains such as coconuts, cocoa, olives, and cherries, reflecting both crew consumption and commercial trade. Manual sampling favored large botanical materials, creating a preservation bias and limiting the interpretation of cargo diversity. Limitations included loss of stratigraphic data and label degradation. Nevertheless, the findings illuminate the integration of exotic and local products in Lisbon's maritime economy. This study underscores the need for improved sampling methods in waterlogged environments and highlights how fragmentary remains can offer valuable insights into daily life, trade routes, and the environmental and commercial evolution of early modern Lisbon.

The primary goals of the imperial administration were the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes to meet military costs and to provide public buildings, entertainments, and handouts in the city of Rome. To achieve these ends the emperors of the early empire took the Republican system of senatorial administration and expanded it, employing slaves and freedmen of their own familia, as well as increasing numbers of equestrians. Growth of bureaucracy appears as a dominant theme in historical studies of the early empire, one author representing the development from the beginning to the end of our period as a change from a ‘monarchie personelle’ to a ‘monarchie bureaucratique’. A description of the administrative organization of the state followed by a discussion of the main lines of development will enable us to test the accuracy of this characterization. We will want in particular to ask: how complex did the organization become by the early second century, and how was the personnel for administrative posts chosen?

During the existence of the Bukhara khanate, the economic and trade relations with neighboring countries on the territory of Central Asia have been largely based on transport system of the old network of roads. Along with the formation and development of communication routes, transportation vehicles also improved based on the natural climate and geographical location of different regions. In the following article the info is given on the means of the transport used in the caravan routes in the trade-economic relations of khanate of Bukhara with neighboring countries in medieval times. Included there, the starting of domestication and usage of horse drawn vehicles, camels, donkeys and others, the capacity of daily load of camels, horses, donkeys which were core of caravans, their daily distance, the necessary tasks in the incidents occurred in caravan routes (injuries, bruises, contagious diseases) the stopping regulation of caravans (sand storm, in heat and frost) is thoroughly analyzed.

English Landscapes

SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY MEETING > SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY, 26–30 MARCH 2008, VANCOUVER, CANADA ![Figure][1] Sticky success. Digging asphalt from a seep, researchers recreated samples of Olmec sealant ( inset ). CREDIT: CARL J. WENDT When archaeologists teach about the Olmec culture, they flash images of massive stone heads, sculpted for a sophisticated elite who ruled the swampy lowlands of Mexico from 1200 to 400 B.C.E. But a poster by archaeologist Carl Wendt of California State University, Fullerton, throws the spotlight on Olmec commoners. Once dismissed as simple maize farmers, the ordinary Olmec apparently mastered a sophisticated technique for making asphalt, crucial to sealing wooden boats, and they traded the valuable substance to others. This research will shed new light on previously invisible trade routes, says Olmec expert David Grove of the University of Florida, Gainesville. Because Wendt can distinguish asphalt from various sources, Grove notes, the work “adds a significant new ‘artifact’ [asphalt] to the small list of artifacts that can be used in the study of trade in Mesoamerica at 1000 B.C.E.” Earlier archaeologists paid little attention to asphalt, occasionally noting its presence on sacred figurines, tool handles, and potsherds. But during excavations at the Olmec site of Paso los Ortices, Wendt discovered a pit containing 250 kilograms of asphalt slabs. He wondered how the Olmec processed asphalt, what they used it for, and whether elites controlled its manufacture. To find out, his team studied thin sections of asphalt lumps from Olmec sites with a petrographic microscope. They noted even patterns of sand particles and impressions of decomposed plants, suggesting that these silica-rich materials were intentionally mixed in during heating to add structure to the asphalt. The team also identified and sampled more than 50 asphalt seepages in the Olmec region. Then they experimented, adding different plant additives and heating samples in clay pots over fires to produce an asphalt that was both flexible enough to apply to figurines and other objects and yet hard enough to resist melting in the sun. “We had a bear of a time trying to get it to that state,” says Wendt. Some samples were simply too watery. But Wendt and his team processed other, stickier samples in just a few hours; they found that the leaves of a plant the local inhabitants use to wrap tamales produced the best asphalt. The result is a very early example of materials processing, says Philip Arnold, an archaeologist at Loyola University in Chicago, Illinois, and it's “like a culinary art: You have to understand the properties of individual ingredients and how they work together.” Wendt's evidence now suggests that commoners produced their own asphalt, because the seeps were too numerous for easy management by Olmec lords. Moreover, Wendt's studies at the small Olmec site of El Remolino, dated between 1200 and 850 B.C.E., revealed that commoners extensively processed and used asphalt in their households. But what did they use it for? Other emerging data provide some clues. In January on the Veracruz coast, a team led by Alfredo Delgado Calderon of the Instituto Nacional de Anthropologia e Historia, Veracruz, unearthed remains of a 2200-year-old port and two canoes. The wood had rotted away, but the team found a 1- to 8-centimeter- thick asphalt lining that had once sealed the entire interior of the canoes. Wendt suggests that Olmec commoners processed asphalt primarily to waterproof their boats. That idea fits well with new thinking about the Olmec. For years, archaeologists had agreed that the Olmec economy was founded on maize agriculture, but recent studies reveal that the Olmec situated their villages along rivers and hunted wetland game. “Rivers are their transportation, communication, and trade routes,” says Wendt. “So to have effective watercraft is going to be critical.” Wendt is now studying the Olmec trade in asphalt, using chemical analyses to trace samples to their seepage of origin. This “provides a wonderful economic geography that has not been available for Olmec studies,” says Arnold. “It helps us to contour the Olmec political economy.” [1]: pending:yes