From Coaching Dependency to Digital Autonomy

ChatGPT has enormous capabilities in generating human-like text responses. Moreover, many higher education students use it to complete their language-related tasks. Despite numerous studies about the effectiveness of ChatGPT in English language education, there remains a notable gap in understanding how EFL students perceive this generative chatbot and its implications for self-regulated learning. This research addresses this gap by examining EFL students’ perceptions of ChatGPT as a tool for English language learning and its perceived impact on learner autonomy. A mixed methods approach was used for the current study by administering a survey questionnaire among EFL students (N = 190) and conducting semi-structured interviews with selected students (N = 18) at University X. The data collected from the questionnaire were analysed using SPSS, while the qualitative data from semi-structured interviews were presented using coding and thematic analysis. The findings of this study reveal that students have positive perceptions of using ChatGPT to enhance English language learning and learner autonomy. Most participants appreciated the flexibility and convenience of the tool. The findings of this study have implications for educators and researchers in making informed decisions about revisiting instructional approaches, designing language curricula, and planning professional development activities.

Digital literacy encompasses the skills needed to effectively navigate and use the digital tools and resources that are essential in today's educational landscape. Students with higher levels of digital literacy often demonstrate self-directed learning skills, enabling them to manage their study schedules and submit assignments in a timely and effective manner. Integrating digital literacy with preparation for self-directed learning is critical to fostering successful online learning experiences. Research into the impact of students' digital literacy and readiness for online learning on their self-directed learning is crucial to understanding the competencies and skills required for online education. Such competencies in learners may have unique effects, especially in specific online learning processes such as emergency remote teaching. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the potential impact of students' digital literacy on their self-directed online learning, with a particular focus on their online learning readiness. In line with the purpose of the study, a cross-sectional survey design was employed, using a structural equation modeling approach. The results showed that digital literacy has a direct and positive effect on online learning readiness. In addition, online learning readiness has a direct and positive influence on self-directed online learning. The results also highlighted that digital literacy indirectly and positively influences individuals' levels of self-directed online learning through their online learning readiness.

This study examines the impact of AI-powered language learning applications on learner autonomy and communicative competence in English Language Teaching (ELT).Employing a mixed-method approach with 150 EFL learners, the research combines quantitative data from surveys and app analytics with qualitative insights from interviews.Findings reveal that AI tools such as Duolingo, ELSA Speak, and ChatGPT enhance learner autonomy by fostering goal-setting, self-regulation, and motivation through adaptive feedback and personalization.Similarly, AI applications significantly improve communicative competence, particularly in pronunciation, fluency, and strategic interaction.However, limitations persist regarding socio-cultural understanding, emotional engagement, and overreliance on automated feedback.The study concludes that AI is most effective when integrated within blended learning models that combine technological innovation with teacher guidance, ensuring both autonomy and authentic communication development in ELT.

Self-directed learning (SDL) has become a central pedagogical expectation in secondary and post-secondary education, particularly within boarding school contexts that emphasise independence, self-management and autonomous learning routines. However, students with elevated autistic traits often encounter persistent challenges in engaging with self-directed learning environments, despite demonstrating adequate cognitive ability and academic potential. In boarding schools, difficulties in independent learning are frequently interpreted as low motivation, poor discipline or lack of effort, resulting in interventions that prioritise compliance and behavioural monitoring rather than the underlying regulatory processes shaping learning preferences. This paper is conceptual and does not report primary data. Drawing on contemporary literature related to autistic traits, psychological regulation and learning autonomy, this conceptual review synthesises evidence to examine how autistic traits influence students’ preferences for self-directed learning through the mediating role of psychological regulation. Evidence across five interrelated strands which (a) autistic traits in non-clinical student populations, (b) psychological regulation demands in boarding school environments, (c) self-directed learning characteristics and expectations, (d) institutional and contextual influences in residential schooling and (e) psychological regulation as a mediating mechanism suggests that difficulties with emotional, cognitive and behavioural regulation significantly constrain students’ readiness to engage in self-directed learning. Across studies, psychological dysregulation manifested through heightened stress, anxiety, cognitive overload and reduced self-management capacity emerges as a key mechanism shaping students’ learning preferences. Rather than reflecting an aversion to autonomy, lower preference for self-directed learning among students with autistic traits may represent adaptive responses to regulatory demands that exceed individual coping thresholds. Building on this synthesis, the paper proposes an integrated conceptual framework positioning psychological regulation as a central pathway linking autistic traits to self-directed learning preferences in boarding school contexts. This reframing highlights the need for learning environments that align autonomy expectations with students’ regulatory capacities to support sustainable, inclusive and self-directed learning outcomes.

The rapid evolution of the 21st century has brought significant shifts in the way English language education is approached and delivered. This study explores innovative strategies aimed at empowering language learners to meet contemporary communicative demands and to develop essential 21st-century skills. Utilizing a qualitative descriptive method, the research examines five major strategies: technology integration, project-based learning, storytelling and creative expression, learner autonomy, and gamification. Findings reveal that these strategies not only enhance linguistic proficiency but also promote higher-order thinking skills, learner engagement, creativity, collaboration, and digital literacy. Furthermore, the study highlights the evolving role of educators as facilitators and mentors in creating dynamic, inclusive learning environments. The implementation of these approaches is found to significantly contribute to more effective, relevant, and empowering English language education. This paper concludes that a transformative shift in pedagogical practices is necessary to prepare learners for meaningful participation in an increasingly globalized world.

The rapid advancement of digital technology requires students to develop Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy to adapt to modern learning dynamics and enhance their Critical Thinking Ability. This study aims to examine the impact of Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy on students' Critical Thinking Ability, with Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a moderating variable. The research employed a quantitative approach using the Structural Equation Modeling-Partial Least Square (SEM-PLS) method, analyzed through SmartPLS 4.1 software. Data were collected through online questionnaires from 202 respondents selected via simple random sampling from the 2022 class of Economics Education students at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Negeri Semarang (FEB UNNES). The results indicate that both Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy have a positive and significant effect on students’ Critical Thinking Ability. Furthermore, AI significantly and strongly moderates the relationship between Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking Ability (path coefficient β = 0.203; p = 0.010), but does not significantly moderate the relationship between Learning Autonomy and Critical Thinking Ability (path coefficient β = 0.051; p = 0.520). These findings suggest that students with higher levels of Digital Literacy are able to leverage AI tools more effectively to enhance their cognitive processes and analytical reasoning. Therefore, Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy are essential in shaping students' Critical Thinking Ability, while the use of AI serves as a cognitive accelerator, particularly for those already possessing strong digital competence. This study contributes to the development of higher education by emphasizing the importance of integrating Digital Literacy and responsible AI usage in learning environments. Promoting these elements can foster independent learning and strengthen students' Critical Thinking Ability, preparing them to excel academically and professionally in the digital eraThe rapid advancement of digital technology requires students to develop Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy to adapt to modern learning dynamics and enhance their Critical Thinking Ability. This study aims to examine the impact of Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy on students' Critical Thinking Ability, with Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a moderating variable. The research employed a quantitative approach using the Structural Equation Modeling-Partial Least Square (SEM-PLS) method, analyzed through SmartPLS 4.1 software. Data were collected through online questionnaires from 202 respondents selected via simple random sampling from the 2022 class of Economics Education students at the Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Negeri Semarang (FEB UNNES). The results indicate that both Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy have a positive and significant effect on students’ Critical Thinking Ability. Furthermore, AI significantly and strongly moderates the relationship between Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking Ability (path coefficient β = 0.203; p = 0.010), but does not significantly moderate the relationship between Learning Autonomy and Critical Thinking Ability (path coefficient β = 0.051; p = 0.520). These findings suggest that students with higher levels of Digital Literacy are able to leverage AI tools more effectively to enhance their cognitive processes and analytical reasoning. Therefore, Digital Literacy and Learning Autonomy are essential in shaping students' Critical Thinking Ability, while the use of AI serves as a cognitive accelerator, particularly for those already possessing strong digital competence. This study contributes to the development of higher education by emphasizing the importance of integrating Digital Literacy and responsible AI usage in learning environments. Promoting these elements can foster independent learning and strengthen students' Critical Thinking Ability, preparing them to excel academically and professionally in the digital era.

Education has been shifted to a digital environment nowadays. Students must adapt to the implementation of distance learning. This online learning requires the activeness of students, especially to be independent in learning—self-directed learning. However, with many learning resources on the internet, digital literacy is also needed so that students can carry out their self-directed learning better. This study aims to determine whether there is a relationship between digital literacy and self-directed learning in high school students. This research method is quantitative with a correlational design. The sample for this study used a proportionate stratified random sampling technique and obtained as many as 259 1st and 2nd year students from SMAN 6 Semarang. The measuring instruments used are the digital literacy scale and the self-directed learning scale, with Cronbach's Alpha reliability scores of 0.827 and 0.851, respectively. The results of hypothesis testing are the acceptance of the working hypothesis, so it can be concluded that there is a relationship between digital literacy and self-directed learning. The correlation coefficient obtained is 0.217. In addition, descriptively, it is known that the subject's self-directed learning condition is in the medium category and the subject's digital literacy condition is also in the moderate category.

The aim of this study was to identify the relationship between the level of digital literacy and self-directed learning among students of Sharif University of Technology. Digital literacy refers to the set of capabilities required for the effective use of information and communication technologies in a knowledge society. Self-directed learning is a process in which people identify their learning needs and implement appropriate learning strategies. Its dimensions are self-management, self-control and desire to learn. Self-management is related to work control issues focuses on the behavioral and social aspects of learning tendencies. Outdoor activities, in this sense, are related to the learning process. Self-management is related to setting learning goals and managing learning resources. Questions about management goal, learning methods, support, and outcomes are discussed collaboratively and continuously. Self-control considers cognitive and metacognitive processes, including the monitoring of learning strategies, as well as the ability to think about the way of thinking (planning and modifying thinking according to the purpose of learning). Self-control is the process by which the learner becomes responsible for his or her own mental construction. The basic concept of the desire to learn dimension is that motivation plays an important role in taking action and maintaining the effort to learn and complete cognitive goals. Despite our limited understanding of the relationship between motivation and cognition, there is ample evidence that motivational factors have many practical effects on a variety of cognitive activities. In his regard, there are five questions as below: Question 1: What is the relationship between the level of digital literacy and students' self-directed learning and its various dimensions? Question 2: What is the relationship between students' gender and digital literacy and their self-directed learning? Question 3: What is the relationship between education and digital literacy and students' self-directed learning? Question 4: What is the relationship between college and digital literacy and students' self-directed learning? Question 5: What is the relationship between students' participation in IT courses and their level of digital literacy? This research is applied in terms of purpose and is a descriptive-survey in terms of data collection method. Is. In this study, Sharif University of Technology students in undergraduate and graduate studies were selected as the statistical population. 8709 students are studying in 13 faculties of this university. The number of male and female students in bachelor's and master's degrees is almost equal. Stratified sampling method was used and 30 students (15 male and 15 female) from each faculty were randomly selected. A total of 390 people were randomly selected of which 195 were female and 195 were male. In order to assess the level of digital literacy of students and their self-directed learning, researcher-made and standard questionnaires were used, respectively. a standard questionnaire was used to assess the self-directed learning of the respondents. This questionnaire is the Fisher standard questionnaire with 40 items that was introduced in 2001. The response scale is the Likert five-choice range (too low = 1 to too high = 5). Score of the self-directed learning variable of each respondent was equal to the median score of items. Since there was not any updated and appropriate questionnaire to measure the level of digital literacy, the researcher decided to design a researcher-made questionnaire with the following steps: 1- Digital literacy reference sources such as Microsoft and North Star companies were used to design the questionnaire. The questions on these websites cover various areas of digital literacy, from beginner to advanced. 2- The questions were modified and localized. The final questionnaire consisted of 25 items that items 1 to 18 measured the digital literacy level of the respondent as a practical test and items 19 to 25 measured the respondents' mental perceptions of their digital literacy level. 3- The questionnaire was revised by 14 experts and professors to ensure its validity 4- Cronbach's alpha test was used to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. The results showed the high reliability of the questionnaire. The results showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between the level of digital literacy and students' self-directed learning and all its dimensions. It can be concluded that the digital literacy of Sharif University of Technology students is not at a very good level. In order to improve its students 'academic achievement indicators, the university can hold various courses to increase students' digital literacy skills.

Students are adult learners who are required to be independent in learning. Along with the rapid and massive development of the times, in self-directed learning students are currently facilitated by the availability of technology. So in this era of digital literacy becomes important provisions in student independent learning. In this study, the author will examine digital literacy and self-directed learning independent learning abilities among students of third-year English Education IAIN Surakarta. This research leads to qualitative research. The results of the study note that, to complete the assignments of the lecturers, many students use the internet as a source of learning. In addition they realize that they have implemented independent learning (SDL) in their daily lives. Balanced by their ability to digitally literate, the process of independent learning increasingly adds to the learning outcomes.Keywords: Digital literacy, self-directed learning

This study investigates the effectiveness of AI-based and teacher-based explicit correction on grammatical accuracy and learner autonomy among Arabian EFL learners at the university level. A total of 75 students were initially selected, but following a proficiency test, 54 homogenized EFL learners in terms of general English knowledge were divided into three groups: AI-based explicit correction (via ChatGPT), teacher-based explicit correction, and a control group with no feedback on grammar. The study employed a pretest-posttest design with grammar tests and an autonomy questionnaire administered before and after the intervention. Participants in both experimental groups were provided feedback on grammatical points like conditional type one, conditional type two, and active/passive voice through either AI tools or direct teacher feedback, while the control group received no feedback on the grammatical errors produced in writing texts. Results from the Kruskal-Wallis and ANOVA tests indicated that AI-based corrective feedback significantly improved both grammatical accuracy and learner autonomy compared to teacher-based feedback and the control group. These findings emphasize the potential of AI as an effective tool for enhancing language learning outcomes. The significance of the current study goes back to the role of AI and how it can play an influential role in both improving students'grammar and assisting them to become more independent and self-directed learners, which is an increasingly important skill in today's world. The implications for pedagogy and future research in technology-enhanced language learning are also discussed.

The research entitled Self-directed Learning for Learner Autonomy: Perceptions of Teachers and Students was carried out to explore the perceptions about Self Directed Learning (SDL) for Learner Autonomy (LA) and analyze the roles of teachers to engage students in SDL. Considering the objectives, the primary data was collected from five master level English Language Teaching (ELT) teachers and three groups of master level students from Pokhara, Kaski. The purposive non-random sampling procedure was used to select the participants. The study was conducted using in-depth interview and Focused Group Discussion (FGD) tools to collect data. The obtained data from the respondents were analyzed and interpreted using analytical and interpretative procedure. It is a new approach in language teaching and learning in Nepalese context though it has been practicing since earlier. The finding shows that all the respondents have positive perceptions and its great contribution for developing LA. SDL helps learners to achieve better achievement and effective learning. It helps teachers to find the necessary changes and increases motivation to the learners to learn. But because of student’s unawareness, time constraint, no inspirations of institutions, student’s false assumptions, lack of insight knowledge about SDL, etc are creating the challenges in its proper application. In the study, the teachers’ roles are facilitator, helper, and resource provider by creating different situation, encouraging, orientating, inspiring, using Information Communication Technology (ICT) and using multimodality in the classroom.

The implementation of the Independent Campus Learning Curriculum Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) which was initiated by the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology. This curriculum emphasizes flexibility, independent learning, and the relevance of education to the world of work. Applied Linguistic Studies in English Language and Digital Literacy Teaching, Applied linguistics focuses on the application of linguistic theories and methods to solve practical problems in language teaching. The majority of students feel confident in their ability to use digital technology and English in professional contexts. The industry also recognizes students' readiness to enter the world of work with relevant skills. This research produces recommendations (a) Need more practice writing digital content and professional reports in English. (b) Expansion of technology-based projects to strengthen students' digital literacy. (c) Conducting regular evaluations of the curriculum and teaching methods to ensure their relevance and effectiveness. Keywords: Digital Literacy, MBKM, Applied Linguistic, English Tourism

Social media has become an integral feature of contemporary communication and is increasingly embedded in English language teaching and learning contexts. Its growing presence in educational settings has generated considerable interest among researchers and practitioners, yet its pedagogical value remains debated due to variations in instructional design, learner engagement, and contextual constraints. This article presents a systematic literature review examining the pedagogical uses, benefits, and challenges of social media in English language teaching and learning. Drawing on thirty peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025, the review synthesises research findings related to communicative competence, learner motivation, language skills development, digital literacy, affective factors, and emerging instructional practices. Relevant studies were identified through structured searches of academic databases and selected according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The literature was analysed thematically to identify recurring patterns and areas of convergence across diverse educational contexts. The findings indicate that social media can support vocabulary development, oral and written communication, learner autonomy, motivation, and collaborative learning by facilitating authentic interaction and flexible, learner-centred engagement beyond the classroom. At the same time, persistent challenges are reported, including learner distraction, unequal access to digital resources, exposure to informal or non-standard language, limited teacher preparedness, and potential social and psychological risks. Overall, the review suggests that social media represents a valuable but complex pedagogical resource whose effective integration into English language education requires informed instructional planning, sustained teacher training, and further longitudinal research to understand its long-term impact on language development better.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0040/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

English language education in developing countries like Malaysia has often been cited as a valuable asset and instrumental in improving the lives of its citizens. While providing quality education in rural Malaysia has always been a challenge, little is known of the status of English language education in rural schools. The recent information provided by the United Nations Human Development Index website shows Malaysia’s rural population is about 23% of the total population of 32 million. Thus, this paper examines published peer-reviewed research articles concerning English education in rural schools to determine the current status, and future needs of rural English education. This review not only highlights the dearth of research in this area but also examines how the current reform initiated for English language education in Malaysia affects rural schools. The findings also reveal that persistent issues such as lack of interest and need to use English among rural students, poor infrastructure and limited resources in schools, and lack of parental support in assisting school work at home remain as major challenges for improvement in English education. The findings also show that published school-based research was generally random studies carried out by independent researchers. Thus, none of the studies in this review reported any planned and coordinated intervention programmes by the Ministry of Education to improve rural English education. While more research is needed, supporting and encouraging critical analysis of current educational practices and policies is vital for ensuring better development and improvement for English education in rural schools.

The exponential development of artificial intelligence (AI) has introduced both opportunities and barriers in language education. While AI-driven tools offer significant potential to personalize instruction, their effective use depends on teachers’ digital literacy and their attitudes toward technology, that is, their technophobia and technophilia levels. This study investigates the impact of digital literacy, technophobia, and technophilia in shaping AI integration into English language education among Kurdish EFL university teachers. Employing a quantitative design with 92 teachers, the research utilized validated scales and non-parametric statistical tests to assess EFL teachers’ levels of digital literacy, technophobia, technophilia, and AI integration, as well as the interrelationship among the variables. The results revealed that teachers demonstrated low levels of technophobia, high levels of technophilia, and moderate levels of digital literacy and AI integration into teaching and assessment. Correlation analyses indicated that digital literacy and technophilia were positively associated with AI integration, whereas technophobia was negatively related. Furthermore, digital literacy was negatively correlated with technophobia and positively correlated with technophilia, suggesting that skill levels shape technology-related attitudes. Age demonstrated weak but significant associations, with older teachers showing slightly higher technophobia and lower technophilia and digital literacy, while no gender differences were observed. This implies that successful AI integration in language education can be strongly affected by teachers’ digital skills and affective orientations toward technology. These insights highlight the need for targeted professional development to foster both competence and positive attitudes toward AI-enhanced teaching.