Formaldehyde Exposure and Associated Health Burdens Apportioned to Residential and Public Places Based on Personal and Environmental Measurements

Assessment of personal formaldehyde (FA) exposure is most commonly carried out using formate as a biomarker, as it is the major product from FA metabolism. However, formate could also have originated from the metabolism of other endogenous and exogenous substances or from dietary intake, which may give rise to overestimated results with regard to FA exposure. We have developed and validated a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) coupled with an isotope-dilution method for rigorous quantitation of two major urinary FA conjugation products: thioproline (SPro) and thioprolinyl glycine (SPro-Gly), formed in the reaction between FA and endogenous cysteine or cysteinyl glycine, respectively, as marker molecules to assess personal FA exposure. Using this newly developed method, we measured the FA exposure levels in cigarette smokers, occupants of a chemistry research laboratory and typical domestic household, and visitors to a Chinese temple with a Pearson correlation coefficient greater than 0.94, showing a strong linear correlation between urinary adduct levels and the airborne FA level. It is believed that quantitation of urinary SPro and SPro-Gly may represent a noninvasive, interference-free method for assessing personal FA exposure.

Time-weighted average (TWA) personal total and respirable dust exposures were determined gravimetrically for 48 subjects in 4 cabinet-making plants. TWA personal formaldehyde exposures also were obtained, with the use of 3M 3750 passive monitors. Selective area sampling for formaldehyde was undertaken using two methods. The results obtained with the passive monitors were compared to the standard chromotropic acid impinger method. Considerable variation was noted in the dust exposures. Cabinet-makers exposed to softwoods were found to have a mean exposure of approximately one half of the current applicable ACGIH TWA-TLV, while hard-wood exposure was twice the applicable TWA-TLV. The highest dust exposures were recorded for those workers sanding, the mean total dust being 2.91 mg/m3 (S.E. 0.70) and respirable dust 0.63 mg/m3 (S.E. 0.20). Sanding operations also were found to produce a higher proportion of respirable dust (22%) than other woodworking operations (6%-14%). Workers in assembly areas also were found to have higher dust exposures, likely reflecting the fact that conventional dust collection devices for stationary woodworking equipment are not appropriate for hand held tools and hand sanding. The importance of making respirable dust measurements is discussed. The poor correlation between paired total and respirable dust concentrations indicates that both measurements should be made. Some potential limitations to respirable wood dust sampling using 10 mm nylon cyclones are noted, however. Area dust concentrations were found to be significantly lower than personal exposures, emphasizing the importance of personal sampling data. Formaldehyde vapor exposures were very low, with a mean of 0.06 ppm (S.E. 0.01).

TAA1-O-06 A questionnaire survey relating to inhalation exposure assessment of VOCs and housing/decoration characteristics was carried out among 200 households with 628 residents. Indoor concentrations and variation of BTEX-compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) were investigated in 60 apartments selected from 200 homes mentioned above, 20 offices/classrooms, and 20 other public indoor environments (restaurants, cinemas, and shopping malls) while BTEX concentrations of outdoor environments were monitored as comparison. Exposure of nonoccupationally exposed individuals (adolescents, adults, and the aged) at home and other indoor environments to BTEX-compounds during normal indoor activities were assessed. Results showed that the lowest BTEX air concentrations are determined outdoors, while concentrations of indoor microenvironments are much higher, especially in the freshly decorated houses. Public indoor environments had higher average indoor levels of BTEX concentration than residential, office, and classroom environments. Indoor concentrations of BTEX were usually found to be variable in different residential environments. In residences decorated within 2 years, toluene had the highest mean concentration (0.13 mg/m3), followed by m-/p-xylenes (0.11 mg/m3), ethylbenzene (0.091 mg/m3), benzene (0.082 mg/m3), and finally o-xylene (0.067 mg/m3). BTEX concentrations in the houses that had been decorated more than 2 years were evidently lower. Potential doses of BTEX exposure were calculated combining indoor concentration of different microenvironments with time-activity patterns of different target groups. For the people whose houses were newly decorated in recent 2 years, the adult had the highest potential doses (1.47 mg/day) and the aged the least (1.13 mg/day), whereas people living in the houses decorated more than 2 years had much lower doses. The result of the survey indicated that the percentage of different symptoms for people whose houses were newly adorned were 7.3% (skin itch), 12.7% (shortness of breath), 17.8% (dizziness), 5.9% (fatigue), and 8.5% (throat irritation), whereas people living in the houses decorated long time ago experienced lower percentage of these symptoms. Considering the high concentration level of BTEX in residential environments and some public indoor environments caused by decoration and fitment in Tianjin, China, integrated measures including control and precaution were needed to reduce the potential health risk for nonoccupationally exposed individuals.

PM exposure variations due to different time activity profile simulations within a single dwelling

Formaldehyde is a ubiquitous chemical agent, a part of our outdoor and indoor working and residential environment. Healthcare workers in difficult occupations are among the most affected by formaldehyde exposure. Formaldehyde is an ingredient of some dental materials. Formaldehyde is well-known mucous membrane irritant and a primary skin sensitizing agent associated with both contact dermatitis (Type IV allergy), and immediate, anaphylactic reactions (Type I allergy). Inhalation exposure to formaldehyde was identified as a potential cause of asthma. Quite a few investigations are available concerning health issues for dental students following formaldehyde exposure. Such studies would be beneficial for early diagnosis of hypersensitivity, adequate prophylactic, risk assessment and management of their work.

Child health and development benefit from physical activity. This analysis describes the residential play environment for children aged 2-4years in farmworker families, their parent-reported levels of play and media time, and the association of residential environment with play and media time. Mothers with a child aged 2-4years in farmworker families (n=248) completed interviews over 2years. Outcome measures were daily outdoor play time and media time. Measures of the residential environment included physical and social components. The mean min/day for outdoor play was 81.8 (SD 57.3) at baseline, 111.4 (SD 90.1) at year 1 follow-up, and 103.6 (SD 76.2) at year 2 follow-up. The mean media min/day at baseline was 83.8 (SD 64.3), 93.7 (SD 80.3) min/day at year 1 follow-up, and 59.9min/day (SD (45.6) at year 2 follow-up. One additional person per bedroom was associated with 6 fewer min/day with media. The addition of each age appropriate toy was associated with an additional 12.3min/day of outdoor play. An additional type of inappropriate media was associated with 6.8 more min/day with media. These results suggest changes to the residential environment to improve physical activity among children in Latino farmworker families.

High levels of air pollution are associated with adverse effects on public health. Pollutant concentrations are typically subject to a high spatial and temporal variability. To investigate and quantify potential relations between pollutant concentrations and health effects, e.g. cases of respiratory diseases, sophisticated geospatial tools and methods are required. Air pollutants are ubiquitous and a certain level of exposure is inevitable. For risk assessments and public health advice, however, it is necessary to quantify human exposure to specific pollutants of concern. This is a challenging task as individual daily mobility patterns substantially influence exposure to air pollutants over time and in space. But it is not only people’s activities making the quantification difficult, also air chemistry, microclimatic and meteorological influences are changing over space and time, resulting in high spatial and temporal variation of ambient pollutant concentrations. Within a research project funded by the Scottish Government (EDPHiS, Environmental Determinants of Public Health in Scotland), the application of GIS methods and tools for integrating data from personal monitoring trials with supporting Scotland-wide datasets such as air pollution concentrations, land use and population data for personal exposure assessment will be examined. The work described here is conducted in the frame of a joint PhD studentship between the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology and the University of Exeter. It focuses on the development of methods for personal exposure monitoring as well as the integration of measured data with supporting secondary data for improving human exposure assessment. For this purpose, an experimental design with a small, wearable personal monitoring device to derive personal time-activity patterns and exposure profiles is currently devised. Resulting personal exposure profiles will be integrated and assessed using geographic Information Systems (GIS) methods for a complementary human exposure assessment approach. The work presented here will focus on the aspect of monitoring personal activity and resulting exposure. Its challenges and methods for quantification will be elaborated.

An air sampling study was conducted to evaluate personal formaldehyde exposures in a group of office workers spread across five geographical locations in the USA. Passive badge samples for formaldehyde were collected on three participants in each location, as well as in the office and home indoor microenvironments of each participant over 3 individual days. Median personal 24-h formaldehyde concentrations ranged from 9.9 to 18μg/m3. Personal 24-h formaldehyde concentrations in one location were significantly higher than concentrations measured in the other four locations; no significant differences existed between any of the other locations. The participants in this study spent an average of 53% of their daily time in their homes, 36% at their office, and 11% in other indoor and outdoor locations. A comparison of measured 24-h personal formaldehyde concentrations and a model of average exposure based upon measured concentrations in the indoor microenvironments suggested that both the home and office formaldehyde concentrations were a strong predictor (R2 = 0.88) of overall personal exposure. The data from this study are representative of office workers in urban environments and can be used as background formaldehyde exposure levels (in the absence of specific sources) for both occupational and nonoccupational exposure assessments.

This study examines the role of indoor environmental quality in sustainable interior design and its impact on individual's behavior in residential environments. The research problem is that interior designers are unaware of the need of implementing sustainable design into interior environments, which can have a determined impact on individuals' behavior and reduce the efficiency and performance of residential environments. The main objective of this study is to figure out how sustainable interior design might impact individuals' behavior in residential environments. The importance of the research comes in providing the public with information about the importance of employing sustainable design in the interior design of residential environments to raise the performance, efficiency, and services of these buildings through improving individuals' behavior in it. Research objectives focuses on providing tips, instructions, and mechanisms that can be applied during the design process, which may improve the quality of the internal environments in residential buildings. The research follows the descriptive analytical approach in collecting information through questionnaires, personal interviews, and field visits. Researchers used statistical analysis and analytical tables to analyze the information. Findings confirm that: (1) sustainable interior design plays a positive role in influencing the levels of behavior of individuals, which in turn enhances their positive behavior during daily activities within residential environments, (2) the elements of sustainable interior design have an important role in improving the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of the interior environment in residential buildings, Finally (3) sustainable interior design has an active role in raising the performance, efficiency and services of residential environments.

This report describes efforts over a more than a 15-year period to improve air quality and reduce exposures to formaldehyde during anatomical dissections at the Yale University School of Medicine, including first-year medical student gross anatomy classes. During this time, a number of steps were taken to improve general ventilation system efficiency and work practices in the original facility. Subsequently, during the design phase for a new research and teaching building, a new anatomical laboratory was planned to incorporate 42 individually ventilated dissection tables. The tables were customized from a commercially available design to operate at lower volumetric airflow rates while still providing a high degree of formaldehyde containment. Air monitoring performed throughout this time period showed progressive reductions in formaldehyde exposure as ventilation modifications were made. However, significant reductions only occurred after the installation of the ventilated tables. Personal and area exposure monitoring during thoracic and abdominal dissections now show a five- to tenfold reduction in formaldehyde exposure compared to previous operations, with exposures consistently below 0.1 ppm.

INTRODUCTIONWhile formaldehyde (FA) has a long history as a preferred fixative in the preservation of human donors for medical education,1 it is also a known carcinogen.2,3 It is a harmful chemical that has been implicated in a number of cancers, as well as being an irritant to the nasal and lung epithelium.4'6 At room temperature, FA is a colorless gas, and while its odor can be detected at concentrations between 0.5 and 1.0 parts per million (ppm),68 it can irritate the eyes and upper respiratory tract at much lower levels (0.3 ppm).9BACKGROUNDMost medical schools utilize a Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH), an expert highly trained in chemical hygiene and air quality assessment, to manage FA levels in the human anatomy laboratory. However, many physical therapist (PT) education programs must rely solely on the anatomist for FA management.10 There are methods available to assess for and reduce FA exposure levels, but without access to a CIH in PT education programs, anatomists may not be aware of the hazard, and therefore not motivated to take action. Oftentimes anatomy instructors are not irritated by FA, placing them in an at-risk group for overexposure and potentially making them less likely to seek out FA monitoring and management strategies.10,11 Frequently, anatomists are unaware of FA safety (monitoring and management) unless laboratory air quality becomes problematic for their students or themselves. It would be useful for anatomists to have current FA safety regulations and recommendations summarized, along with access to a CIH who could provide at least annual FA monitoring and management, and a simple, cost-effective method to monitor personal FA exposure levels on a routine basis.Formaldehyde Regulations and RecommendationsThere is often confusion regarding FA safety, as there are both recommendations as well as regulations regarding exposure limits. Mirabelli and colleagues (2011) prepared a brief summary of current FA policies, as seen in Table l.11 While the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the regulatory body for industry, has a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 0.75 ppm, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends 0.08 ppm to control for all cancers.12'14 The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) acknowledges that the WHO limit cannot be met in certain settings (FA production plants, laboratories using FA), and recommends a threshold limit value of 0.3 ppm.14,15Factors Effecting Formaldehyde Exposure LevelsFormaldehyde exposure levels can be effected by the following variables in the anatomy laboratory: (1) temperature and humidity, (2) chemical makeup of the embalming and wetting solutions, (3) delivery system being used with the wetting solution, (4) number of donors being dissected, (5) regions of the body being dissected, (6) size of the laboratory, and (7) the ventilation system (turnover rate, uptake and exhaust duct placement, room pressure).16Formaldehyde Exposure MonitoringThe United States Department of Labor OSHA regulation standard 29 Code of Federal Regulations part 1910.1048(d)(2)(h) states that employers shall repeat FA monitoring each time there is a change in production, equipment, process, personnel, or control measures which may result in new or additional exposure to formaldehyde.1' Application of this OSHA regulation in the anatomy laboratory setting is typically interpreted to mean that complete FA assessments be conducted annually, as well as when conditions in the environment change (arrival of new human donors in the anatomy laboratory, or at the start of a new semester). A CIH determines FA exposure levels by assessing both ambient (room air) and personal FA exposure levels, temperature and humidity, and ventilation rates and airflow patterns. Ambient testing provides a snapshot of air quality in a laboratory, while personal FA exposure assessments provide accurate measures of individual FA exposure. …

Personal monitoring can estimate individuals' exposures to environmental pollutants; however, accuracy depends on consistent monitor wearing, which is under evaluated. To study the association between device wearing and personal air pollution exposure. Using personal device accelerometry data collected in the context of a randomized cooking intervention in Ghana with three study arms (control, improved biomass, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) arms; N = 1414), we account for device wearing to infer parameters of PM2.5 and CO exposure. Device wearing was positively associated with exposure in the control and improved biomass arms, but weakly in the LPG arm. Inferred community-level air pollution was similar across study arms (~45 μg/m3). The estimated direct contribution of individuals' cooking to PM2.5 exposure was 64 μg/m3 for the control arm, 74 μg/m3 for improved biomass, and 6 μg/m3 for LPG. Arm-specific average PM2.5 exposure at near-maximum wearing was significantly lower in the LPG arm as compared to the improved biomass and control arms. Analysis of personal CO exposure mirrored PM2.5 results. Personal monitor wearing was positively associated with average air pollution exposure, emphasizing the importance of high device wearing during monitoring periods and directly assessing device wearing for each deployment. We demonstrate that personal monitor wearing data can be used to refine exposure estimates and infer unobserved parameters related to the timing and source of environmental exposures. In a cookstove trial among pregnant women, time-resolved personal air pollution device wearing data were used to refine exposure estimates and infer unobserved exposure parameters, including community-level air pollution, the direct contribution of cooking to personal exposure, and the effect of clean cooking interventions on personal exposure. For example, in the control arm, while average 48 h personal PM2.5 exposure was 77 μg/m3, average predicted exposure at near-maximum daytime device wearing was 108 μg/m3 and 48 μg/m3 at zero daytime device wearing. Wearing-corrected average 48 h personal PM2.5 exposures were 50% lower in the LPG arm than the control and improved biomass and inferred direct cooking contributions to personal PM2.5 from LPG were 90% lower than the other arms. Our recommendation is that studies assessing personal exposures should examine the direct association between device wearing and estimated mean personal exposure.

This study assessed the noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks associated with formaldehyde exposure for employees working in 4 categories of public places in Kunshan City in China. A total of 564 different public places, which can be divided into 4 categories (hotel and social interaction places, bathing and beauty places, cultural and entertainment places, and shopping places), and 2716 indoor air samples in those places were measured from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2015. The average concentration of formaldehyde was 0.57 mg/m3, which is 5.7 times the acceptable concentration level (0.1 mg/m3). The noncarcinogenic risk assessment index for the 4 categories of places tested was above 1. The carcinogenic risk of formaldehyde for employees of the 4 categories of public places was 4.70 × 10-5 to 1.57 × 10-4, which was greater than the acceptable carcinogenic risk probability (1 × 10-6) from the US Environmental Protection Agency. The highest carcinogenic risk occurred in bathing and beauty places, and male employee carcinogenic risk was greater than that of females. Occupational formaldehyde exposure has serious noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks for employees, and further research is needed to improve indoor air quality in the workplace environment.

The residential environment significantly influences residents’ health, quality of life, and well-being. Therefore, it is essential to assess the residential environment and implement improvement measures when problems are identified. In this context, the use of assessment tools such as BREEAM, LEED, and CASBEE has increased rapidly in recent years. Identifying key items with these assessment tools is crucial for prioritizing improvements to residential environment. This study introduces the novel application of item response theory (IRT) to building environment engineering data in order to identify key items from the CASBEE Residential Health Checklist. The strength of IRT lies in its ability to consider variations in scores for each item and the relative relationships between items, thereby enabling the identification of significantly influential key items. Examining Japanese residences, IRT identified 6 environmental items and 7 spatial items from a total of 44 items in the CASBEE Residential Health Checklist. Additionally, these environmental and spatial components were ranked by their explanatory power for the overall assessment of the residential environment. These findings contribute to prioritizing improvements in residential environments and provide a brief assessment method. IRT can be applied to other regions and building types, potentially enabling the identification of key items unique to each case. Thus, IRT is a versatile method with broad applicability for identifying key items in residential environment assessments.

Formaldehyde (HCHO) is a common chemical found in occupational and residential environments and has been suggested as a cause of asthmalike symptoms in some individuals. Clinical and animal studies suggest that HCHO adsorbed on respirable particles may elicit a greater pulmonary physiologic and inflammatory effect than gaseous HCHO alone. The purpose of this study was to determine if respirable carbon particles have a synergistic effect on the acute symptomatic and pulmonary physiologic response to HCHO inhalation. We randomly exposed 24 normal, nonsmoking, methacholine-nonreactive subjects to 2 h each of clean air, 3 ppm formaldehyde, 0.5 mg/m3 respirable activated carbon aerosol, and the combination of 3 ppm formaldehyde plus activated carbon aerosol. The subjects engaged in intermittent heavy bicycle exercise (VE = 57 l/min) for 15 min each half hour. Measures of response included symptom questionnaires, spirometry, body plethysmography, and postexposure serial peak flows. Formaldehyde exposure was associated with significant increases in reported eye irritation, nasal irritation, throat irritation, headache, chest discomfort, and odor. We observed synergistic increases in cough, but not in other irritant respiratory tract symptoms, with inhalation of formaldehyde and carbon. Small (less than 5%) synergistic decreases in FVC and FEV3 were also seen. We observed no HCHO effect on FEV1; however, we did observe small (less than 10%) significant decreases in FEF25-75% and SGaw which may be indicative of increased airway tone. Overall, our results demonstrated synergism, but the effect is small and its clinical significance is uncertain.