Foreword - The World Organisation for Animal Health turns 100: reflections on the Organisation's role and evolution since 1924.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has exposed serious deficiencies in the current legal framework to protect wild animal health, and consequently human health. As noted by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), animal health and welfare are inextricably linked. However, there is no international agreement to promote animal welfare and neither the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora nor the Convention on Biological Diversity, adequately address the welfare of the species they seek to conserve. While the OIE provides guidance on animal health and welfare standards for common agricultural species, it has provided limited guidance for the farming of wild species. China’s wildlife farming industry has been linked with the spread of COVID-19 but, to date, China has introduced few national welfare controls to protect the health of wild animals bred for human consumption. In the wake of COVID-19, these omissions must be remedied to provide appropriate safeguards to ensure animal health and welfare and protect public health.

The missions of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) include the design of surveillance and control methods for infectious transboundary animal diseases (including zoonoses), the provision of guarantees concerning animal health and animal production food safety, and the setting of standards for, and promotion of, animal welfare. The OIE role in setting standards for the sanitary safety of international trade in animals and animal products is formally recognised in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement). While the primary focus of the OIE is on animal diseases and zoonoses, the OIE has also been working within the WTO framework to examine possible contributions the organisation can make to achieving the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity, particularly to preventing the global spread of invasive alien species (IAS). However, at the present time, setting standards for invasive species (other than those connected to the cause and distribution of diseases listed by the OIE) is outside the OIE mandate. Any future expansion of the OIE mandate would need to be decided by its Members and resources (expertise and financial contributions) for an extended standard-setting work programme secured. The other international standard-setting organisations referenced by the SPS Agreement are the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The IPPC mandate and work programme address IAS and the protection of biodiversity. The CAC is not involved in this field.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), which was created in 1924 under the name Office International des Epizooties, is in charge of setting international standards and guidelines for animal health and welfare. The original aim of the Organisation was to control the international spread of infectious animal diseases, but this aim has expanded over the years and now the OIE has a global mandate to 'improve animal health worldwide' for both terrestrial and aquatic animals. A vital factor in successfully fulfilling this mandate is the quality and performance of both the public and private components of national Veterinary Services, which are increasingly working at the interface between human, animal and environmental health. The OIE considers global veterinary education to be key in maintaining and improving the quality of these Veterinary Services. Consequently, the competencies and continuing education of veterinarians are a priority in the assessment tool that the Organisation has developed to evaluate the performance of Veterinary Services (PVS). Evaluating the abilities and training of veterinarians is an important part of a PVS evaluation, as well-educated veterinarians with appropriate training are essential in improving Veterinary Services worldwide and in helping the OIE to fulfil its mandate.

This paper examines the role of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) in the global surveillance and management of pathogens. Since the creation of WOAH, one of its missions has been to ensure transparency of the global animal health situation. WOAH established a Working Group on Wildlife in 1994 to inform and advise WOAH Members, leadership, and technical teams on issues relating to wildlife health. In 2020 it conducted a consultation with its Members before developing a Wildlife Health Framework to improve global health and wildlife conservation. WOAH Members report diseases in wildlife, but detections are dependent on the surveillance systems in place. As an example of data collected in the most recent years (2019–2023), 154 countries have reported 68,862,973 cases, through alert messages and weekly updates, for 84 diseases. One-hundred and fifty countries have reported 68,672,115 cases in domestic animals and 95 countries have reported 190,858 cases in wild animals. These figures illustrate the performance of the organization in collecting data on wildlife, and provide an indication of the difference in completeness of data collected in domestic animals and wildlife. There are several challenges to wildlife disease surveillance and real figures remain unknown; they depend on the existence, quality and sensitivity of national surveillance. A WOAH-led One Health approach with cross-sectoral collaboration is needed to improve surveillance sensitivity, address the challenges and help safeguard wildlife population health and biodiversity conservation.

The changes that veterinary services have undergone in the developing world over the last two decades are expected to continue and result in the further privatisation of selected tasks, the decentralisation of decision-making and a move towards more focus on public goods service delivery by State veterinary units. At the same time, global food consumption patterns are changing in numerous ways, which will certainly affect veterinary services delivery systems. These changes include a trend towards increasing globalisation, rapidly escalating consumer demand for animal protein, intensification of livestock production into larger units and growth of the trade of livestock and livestock products. Intensification of livestock production into larger units and global trade will increase the challenges resulting from the resurgence of serious animal diseases, food safety hazards and veterinary public health-related problems. Facing and managing these challenges raises issues related to animal health delivery systems and national policies that will have to be addressed. Strengthening the capacity of State veterinary units to respond to regulatory responsibilities dictated by national laws and international World Trade Organization and OIE (World organisation for animal health) health standards will be at the centre of animal health policies in most developing countries. Creating an environment which facilitates privatised service delivery and supports subcontracting is likely to contribute to improving economic efficiency and providing wider access to veterinary services. Equally important is the issue of professional development, which must be addressed by refocusing veterinary curricula and improving professional standards. The profession will then be in a better position to serve the needs of increasing numbers of consumers.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) plays an important leadership role in global efforts to prevent, detect and respond to infectious disease threats. Since 1924, the OIE has helped Member Countries to prevent the spread of animal diseases, while facilitating safe agricultural trade. In recent years, the OIE has also increasingly focused on the biosecurity objectives of preventing unauthorised access to and loss, theft, misuse or diversion of dangerous pathogens, including their intentional release. Preventing the intentional introduction of animal disease is critical not only because of the significant economic impact that animal diseases can have on a nation's economy, but also because a number of animal diseases can affect humans. Over 60% of human diseases are of animal origin. Therefore, the OIE, working in conjunction with its partner organisations, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization, has become a leading international organisation for the control of global infectious disease in humans as well as in animals.

The growing importance of animal diseases and zoonoses at a time when globalisation has increased movements of people, animals and animal products across the globe, has strengthened the role of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) in animal disease control. The OIE’s mandate since its establishment in 1924 has been to facilitate the exchange of public health, animal health and scientific information, and to further the control and eradication of animal diseases. The OIE is recognised by the World Trade Organization Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures as the international reference organisation for animal diseases and zoonoses, especially for standard setting. The standards adopted by the World Assembly of OIE Delegates on veterinary public health and animal health feature in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code, the Aquatic Animal Health Code, the Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals and the Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals. The OIE is also a reference organisation for the exchange of public and animal health information among Member Countries, through an information, reporting and warning system based on transparent communication between countries. The OIE provides scientific expertise in ascertaining countries’ status with regard to notifiable diseases, enabling them to secure official recognition as being free from foot and mouth disease, African horse sickness, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and bovine spongiform encephalopathy. The OIE also contributes its scientific expertise to stakeholder training on the surveillance and control of animal diseases and zoonoses and to the evaluation of the performance of Veterinary Services, to enhance their work as the cornerstone of their countries’ disease control efforts.

Introduction:National Veterinary Services of World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) are responsible for a wide range of activities including animal health, animal welfare and veterinary public health. The WOAH European Region member countries were surveyed to determine and quantify the level of capacity to respond to natural disasters, determine the types of disasters experienced, determine their levels of education and training and identify gaps in capacity and specific needs of Member Countries for disaster response.Method:A web-based Qualtrics survey on Animal Welfare in Natural Disasters was conducted by Lincoln Memorial University in conjunction with the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) Platform on Animal Welfare for Europe. The 50 question survey was distributed by email link to Member Countries points of contact provide by OIE. The survey was emailed to 53 OIE European Member Countries with reminder emails to complete. Survey results were compiled and tabulated. Only aggregate data is published and presented.Results:Forty-nine countries responded to the survey for a 92% completion rate. Floods, earthquakes and fire were the three most commonly encountered disasters. Fifty-two percent indicated they incorporated animal welfare into their disaster planning. Thirty-one percent indicated they had no or limited legal authority to manage animal emergencies in natural disasters. The species covered in the national response plan ranged from laboratory animals at 17% to livestock at 48%. Eighty-two percent had no or limited standard operating procedures and 73% had no training to respond to animal welfare in disasters. Budgets, trained personnel, equipment/supplies and legal authority were the most frequently identified gapsConclusion:The survey demonstrated there is a wide range of European Member Countries capacity to respond to animal welfare in natural disasters. This provides the baseline for the OIE Platform for Animal Welfare Europe to provide focused and actionable support to Member Countries

To effectively reduce health risks at the animal-human-ecosystems interface, a One Health strategy is crucially important to create strong national and regional animal health systems that are well coordinated with strong public health systems. Animal diseases, particularly those caused by new and emerging zoonotic pathogens, must be effectively controlled at their source to reduce their potentially devastating impact upon both animal and human health. As the international organisation responsible for developing standards, guidelines and recommendations for animal health, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) plays an important role in minimising animal and public health risks attributable to zoonoses and other animal diseases, which can have severe consequences for global food safety and security. National Veterinary Services, which implement OIE animal health and welfare standards and other measures, are the first line of defence against these diseases, and must have the capacity to meet the core requirements necessary for their diagnosis and control. The OIE works collaboratively with the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to improve the ability of national animal and public health systems to respond to current and emerging animal health risks with public health consequences. In addition to improving and aligning national laboratory capacities in high-risk areas, the OIE collaborates on One Health-oriented projects for key diseases, establishing model frameworks which can be applied to manage other existing and emerging priority diseases. This article reviews the role and activities of the OIE in strengthening the national Veterinary Services of its Member Countries for a more effective and sustainable One Health collaboration.

Current data suggest that SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) emerged from an animal source. However, to date, there is insufficient scientific evidence to identify the source of SARS-CoV-2 or to explain the original route of transmission to humans. A wide range of mammalian species have been shown to be susceptible to the virus through experimental infection, and in natural environments when in contact with infected humans. The main objective of this work was to provide a summary of the official data shared by countries on SARS-CoV-2 in animals with the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), to highlight the role of WOAH as an international organization in coordinating scientific information actions and to discuss the implications and impact of these activities. Between January 2020 and December 2022, 36 countries in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa officially reported SARS-CoV-2 identification in 26 animal species. Affected countries were generally responsive in confirming the pathogen (median of 5 days after onset) and reporting to WOAH (median of 7 days after confirmation). During the pandemic, WOAH, supported by its network of experts, played a crucial role in collecting, analysing and disseminating veterinary scientific information, acting as the reference organization on these issues, thus avoiding misinformation and disinformation. Future perspectives to avoid new emerging threats are discussed.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is a major actor in international cooperation to improve animal health and welfare throughout the world. The OIE sets international standards to support Member Countries in their efforts to prevent and control animal diseases, strengthen Veterinary Services and Aquatic Animal Health Services, and facilitate safe international trade. Member Countries face many challenges in the implementation of OIE standards. Poor governance and a lack of resources and technical capacity are often major constraints. Trade concerns raised at the World Trade Organization (WTO) can also be a signal that countries are experiencing difficulties in implementing international standards. In May 2018, the World Assembly of OIE Delegates adopted a resolution recommending the establishment of an observatory to monitor the implementation of OIE standards. This monitoring mechanism will help the OIE to improve its international standard-setting process and identify the capacity-building needs of Member Countries. Monitoring implementation will be challenging as the OIE does not prescribe a specific procedure for implementing OIE standards. World Organisation for Animal Health Member Countries use a range of approaches to implement OIE standards, because of differences in animal health situations, legal frameworks and procedures, trade profiles, and acceptable levels of risk. Given this complexity, this article proposes a 'cross-over' approach to monitoring implementation that would require the collection of information from various trusted sources, such as the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), the OIE Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS) Pathway mission reports and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Information Management System database. This approach aims to document what is currently happening and to identify potential patterns in Member Country practices when implementing OIE standards.

Introduction. Foot-and-mouth disease is one of the key threats to global animal welfare and international economic relations. Like any other transboundary animal disease, it shall be notified to the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) in accordance with the relevant international standards. By 2016, the largest part of the territory of the Russian Federation (i. e. 50 subjects and 2 federal cities) had been recognized by the WOAH as an FMD-free zone without vaccination. From 2021 to 2023, 4 more zones of the country were granted the status of freedom from foot-and-mouth disease with vaccination. At the end of 2024, only 10 subjects of the Russian Federation, all located within zone Western Siberia – Urals, lacked official recognition. Objective. Descriptive analysis of the animal health situation in the Russian Federation from 2021 to 2024: substantiating success of the Rosselkhoznadzor’s systematic approach to regionalization in accordance with the WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code. Materials and methods. Various information sources were used to collect and analyze materials on the animal health situation in Russia, including the USSR archives, veterinary reports, and the WOAH statistics. Results. FMD situation was analyzed in 10 subjects of the Russian Federation bordering on the Republic of Kazakhstan, with an emphasis on FMD control measures, regionalization and zoning. This section focuses on distribution of statuses across Russia’s administrative subjects and the historical records on the disease outbreaks. It also outlines regulatory and surveillance measures implemented by the Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance (the Rosselkhoznadzor) to manage the FMD status in various regions, taking into account the prophylactic measures implemented in place. The paper describes these measures and their results step-by-step, showing a dynamic improvement of the FMD surveillance system. Conclusion. On 29 May 2025, at the 92 nd WOAH General Session of the World Assembly of Delegates, Zone Western Siberia – Urals was officially recognized as a foot and-mouth disease-free zone with vaccination. This decision completes the process of structuring the territory of the Russian Federation into 6 zones. The WOAH-granted disease-freedom statuses confirm efficacy of the preventive and surveillance measures, which is crucial to ensure global epizootic stability. These accomplishments result from the efforts jointly taken by the Rosselkhoznadzor and its subordinate institution the Federal Centre for Animal Health.

Only two international organisations have a global legal framework that allows them to request, collect, and release global animal or human health information: the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global animal health situation, and the World Health Organization (WHO), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global human health situation. Legal instruments bind OIE Member Countries and WHO States Parties (OIE's Standards and WHO's International Health Regulations [IHR]) to report certain disease outbreaks and public health events to their respective organisations. OIE Member Countries must report exceptional epidemiological events involving any OIE-listed diseases, including zoonoses. Moreover, they must notify the OIE of any emerging animal diseases. The IHR require WHO Member States to provide notification of events that may constitute a public health emergency of international concern. These include, but are not restricted to, outbreaks of communicable diseases of international concern. In both organisations, in addition to reporting outbreaks and exceptional events, Members also monitor diseases on an ongoing basis and provide regular reports. To complement these passive surveillance mechanisms, the OIE, WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations track signals from informal sources of outbreaks of animal and zoonotic infectious diseases, thereby increasing the sensitivity of worldwide disease reporting. The formal information collected is disseminated to Members and the general public through various communication channels, so that countries can apply science-based measures to prevent further disease spread. Both the OIE and WHO reporting systems are supported by a range of coordinating activities to ensure the proper flow of information between national and international levels.

Wild animal diseases are a global growing concern, given the threat that they pose to animal health and their zoonotic potential. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) was among the first organisations to recognise the importance of having a comprehensive knowledge of the disease situation in wild animals, collecting information on wildlife diseases worldwide since 1993, when for the first time an annual questionnaire was distribute by OIE to members Countries in order to collect qualitative and quantitative data on selected diseases in wild animals. Starting with 2008 until 2012 an updated version of questionnaire was circulated to allow for identifying wildlife species by their Latin name and by their common names in the 3 OIE official languages (English, French, and Spanish). This specific functionality was then implemented in the World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) in 2012, when this information was made available to the public through WAHIS-Wild Interface.

The international trade in animals and animal products has become a sensitive issue for both developed and developing countries by posing an important risk for the international spread of animal and human pathogens whilst at the same time being an essential activity to ensure world-wide food security and food safety. The OIE has since its founding in 1924, applied a democratic and transparent decision-making process to continuously develop and review international standards for animal health and zoonoses to facilitate trade in animals and animal products. The role of the OIE is also mandated by the World Trade Organization (WTO) as international reference point for standards related to animal health. In support of its overall objective of promoting animal health world-wide, the OIE has also launched several other initiatives such as the improvement of the governance of veterinary services within its member countries and territories and to enhance the availability of diagnostic and scientific expertise on a more even global geographical distribution. Several trade facilitating concepts such as country, zonal and compartment freedom from disease as well the trade in disease free commodities has been introduced to enhance the trade in animals and animal products for all its members including those from developing and transitional countries who are still in the process of enhancing to full compliance with international sanitary standards.