For the Nation and the Future: Historical Snapshots into Refugee Education during the Last 100 Years in Finland and Sweden

Purpose This literature review examines trauma-informed educational practices for war-affected refugee students in Greece and Cyprus. This study aims to evaluate the theoretical foundations, practical implementations and policy gaps in both contexts. The objective is to highlight effective strategies for addressing refugee children’s psychosocial and academic needs while offering evidence-based policy recommendations. This paper advocates for a systemic and culturally responsive integration of trauma-informed approaches into national education systems to promote resilience, inclusion and well-being among refugee learners, ultimately informing cross-sector collaboration and educational reform in frontline refugee-hosting nations. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a comprehensive literature review methodology, synthesizing empirical and theoretical research from interdisciplinary sources including education, psychology and neuroscience. It draws on global frameworks and systematically reviews trauma-informed approaches, with a focus on their application and gaps in the Greek and Cypriot educational contexts. Key sources include systematic reviews by Berger (2019) and Avery et al. (2020), complemented by region-specific data, reports and academic studies. The review critically evaluates trauma-informed strategies and policy responses, providing a comparative perspective that underscores the need for systemic, multitiered educational interventions for refugee children. Findings Trauma-informed practices have demonstrable benefits for refugee children’s academic performance, emotional well-being and social inclusion. However, Greece and Cyprus face significant implementation challenges due to fragmented systems, limited teacher training and insufficient mental health support. While nongovernmental organization (NGO)-led initiatives show promise, the absence of national frameworks and whole-school models constrains long-term impact. The findings underscore the need for trauma-informed pedagogy, integration of mental health services, family engagement and culturally responsive teacher training. Institutionalization of these practices, supported by intersectoral collaboration and sustainable funding, is essential for supporting the educational and psychosocial needs of refugee students. Research limitations/implications This review is limited by the paucity of longitudinal and context-specific empirical studies on trauma-informed education in Greece and Cyprus. Most available literature is descriptive or policy-oriented, with limited evaluative research on outcomes. There is also a reliance on NGO data due to insufficient state reporting. Future research should focus on empirical evaluations of trauma-informed models across diverse educational settings, exploring their scalability, sustainability and long-term impact on refugee students. Addressing these research gaps would provide robust evidence for guiding national education reforms and cross-country policy learning in refugee-hosting regions. Practical implications Educators and policymakers can use this review to develop trauma-informed strategies tailored to refugee students’ unique needs. It highlights the importance of integrating trauma-sensitive pedagogy, staff training and whole-school approaches into national systems. Schools should embed social-emotional learning, culturally responsive teaching and mental health support to mitigate the effects of trauma and foster student resilience. The findings suggest that collaborative models involving schools, NGOs and health professionals are essential for effective implementation. Ministries of education should leverage European funding to institutionalize trauma-informed education, thereby improving academic outcomes and psychosocial support for refugee children. Social implications The review identifies education as a critical site for promoting social inclusion, equity and psychological recovery among war-affected refugee children. Implementing trauma-informed practices can reduce educational disparities and prevent further marginalization by creating safe and supportive school environments. Addressing trauma through education also enhances community cohesion and integration by fostering empathy, reducing stigma and promoting intercultural understanding. Systemic adoption of such practices contributes to breaking cycles of trauma and exclusion. Ultimately, the social well-being of refugee children and their successful integration into host societies depend on trauma-sensitive, inclusive and rights-based educational systems. Originality/value This review offers one of the few comparative analyses of trauma-informed educational practices focused specifically on Greece and Cyprus − two frontline refugee-hosting nations. It bridges global research with local implementation contexts, identifying critical gaps and offering concrete policy and practice recommendations. By integrating interdisciplinary evidence and highlighting region-specific needs, this study contributes original insights to the emerging field of trauma-informed education for refugee children. Its value lies in informing both scholarly discourse and practical policymaking, with implications for improving education equity, psychosocial well-being and social cohesion in refugee-hosting contexts.

The recent world refugee crisis has mobilized societies all around the globe and has led to the multiplication of initiatives calling for support to refugees. Given the fact that one-third of the displaced population were children, measures for their immediate integration into schools were taken in most European countries. Although in Greece children with refugee experience first attended schools in 2017, teachers were not adequately prepared to cope with students who had lacked schooling for many years and with whom they couldn’t easily communicate due to language barriers. New teaching methodologies were needed for pre- and in-service teachers to bridge the gap between existing knowledge and the needs of refugee students. In this context, the authors designed a project called “Literacy through Drama” in the reception class of a public school in Volos, Greece involving 12 pre-service teachers. The findings of the study highlight that drama-based informal learning may provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to develop valuable knowledge about learners in authentic settings and pedagogy in practice. Faculties of education could facilitate effective community partnerships with organizations that work with refugee families and children and the school system and propose holistic curricula which include refugee student experiences. Moreover, pre-service teachers could gain skills and knowledge in supporting refugee students, identify refugee students’ needs, communicate in creative ways, and overcome deficit beliefs about refugee students.

Owing to legislative restrictions, Malaysia cannot provide education for refugee children. Instead, the state invites numerous parties, including NGOs, to construct alternative refugee schools. Because education for refugees is an alternative, the goal is directed at practical skills to help refugees work and integrate with Malaysian society or the following country for future resettlement. All of Malaysia's alternative schools for refugees place a strong emphasis on English language acquisition. Even with free education, refugee children struggle to learn English as a Second Language. Psychological phenomena, such as language anxiety, trigger obstacles in learning English. However, learning about language anxiety in the context of alternative education in Malaysia has rarely been studied. Using the mixed-method methodology (MMR) brings about post-positivism and interpretivism. This study had two goals: (1) bridging research gaps on anxiety in learning English as a second language from the viewpoint of alternative school actors and students in refugee communities; and (2) providing solutions for alternative education for refugee communities in Malaysia to understand and address foreign language anxiety. Our study focuses on refugee students from three alternative schools in Klang Valley: the United Learning Center (ULC), Save School Malaysia, and Refugee Academy. The quantitative technique used 92 students to complete the English language classroom anxiety scale (ELCAS), derived from the Foreign Language Classroom Scale (FLCAS). In addition, we interviewed two persons and one teacher from each school for the qualitative approach. For data analysis, we used SPSS 19 for a quantitative and interpretive approach to the qualitative data. Qualitative results indicate that refugee children from three Klang Valley alternative schools experienced medium foreign language learning anxiety. Most refugee children were anxious about English courses, regardless of gender or stream group, emphasizing the necessity for educators and other stakeholders to understand refugee children's anxiety levels and take action with extensive knowledge of anxiety and compassion. Counsellors must also work with teachers to create interventions to assist refugee children in handling their anxiety while studying English. Finally, instructors must use fascinating teaching approaches to minimize refugee children's anxiety, motivate them with emphaty and compassion,and avoid overcorrection.

This paper discusses hopeful futures for higher education and the use of technology in realising those futures through the lens of refugee education in Uganda. Through an analysis of qualitative research done with refugee students and teachers participating in a blended bridging programme designed to prepare students for entry and success in higher education, this paper explores the interplay between contingency and positions of hope for refugee students in relation to higher education and further assimilation into civic society. Two themes emerged from the analysis that suggested a prioritarian orientation for higher education to realise a more hopeful future. First, hope renders as an act of cultivation as refugee students become exposed to new concepts and develop confidence in relation to them. Second, digital technologies broaden the cultivation of hope towards greater civic participation, even if access to higher education is not achieved. Third, hope correlates to action not necessarily as a linear progressive trajectory but as a diligent watchfulness for positive possibility. The implications for higher education are that taking a prioritarian lens for refugees in educational design engages with the contingencies that impact all, placing the sector deliberately in search of positive possibility in its orientation and design.

This thesis examines the role of paraprofessionals in the provision of education for refugee students in a state school in Queensland. Paraprofessionals, often also referred to as home-liaison officers, are employed in schools to assist teachers in the provision of educational services to refugee students. Refugees are described as people who have been forced to leave their country because of persecution, war, violence or natural disasters (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2016). Paraprofessionals are often respected members of local communities, speak the same first language as the refugee students and are familiar with the cultural, religious and other aspects of their backgrounds. As a result, they are well placed to form meaningful bridges between home and school (Lewis, 2004) and to promote better understanding of refugee students’ needs within school settings. Keeping this in mind, this study explores the work of paraprofessionals in contributing to the flows of knowledge across the boundaries of home, school and the local community to enhance the educational outcomes of refugee students. Specifically, the thesis explores three interrelated questions, namely: 1. What school knowledge is selected and organised by paraprofessionals and communicated to refugee families? 2. What knowledge is selected and organised by paraprofessionals from local communities and refugee families and communicated to school staff? 3. How do paraprofessionals translate or recontextualize knowledge across the boundaries of school, home and local community? This research project employed a case study research design which involved interviewing six paraprofessionals responsible for working with refugee students and their families in one primary school in Queensland. Additional data for the study was collected through field notes including my own experience of working with refugee students, their families and paraprofessionals at the case study school. The findings of the study revealed how the paraprofessionals who often work closely with refugee communities can assist teachers in understanding the unique needs of refugee students, developing a broader vision and thereby creating a conducive environment that can provide better educational outcomes. The project’s analysis uncovered the subtle ways in which paraprofessionals contribute in overcoming the barriers between refugee students and their new school environment facilitating cultural integration, positive relationships and sense of belonging. This study has made new contributions to the empirical studies using Bernstein’s theoretical concepts while exploring the work of paraprofessionals in refugee children’s primary school education. The data analysis has revealed how the assimilation of instructional and regulative discourses can be profoundly influenced by new understandings of the ways in which paraprofessionals assist in the flows of knowledge between refugee students, their families, the school and the community. This research study makes a significant contribution to the field of refugee education, revealing new ways to design pedagogic practices in collaboration with paraprofessionals, which will make a positive difference to refugee students’ educational outcomes. The research study has informed how the differences in the modes of pedagogy between home country and host country, as well as the socio-cultural differences in pedagogic practice, can influence the pedagogic discourse that may impede refugee students’ learning. Despite adopting different strategies in bridging the gaps brought about by cultural and communication differences, several policy and practice recommendations emerge from the themes in this study that would further enable the paraprofessionals to act as intermediaries between refugee students, their families and school communities to promote better understanding in the educational context.

This study is designed to identify the prejudice or discriminatory behaviors towards refugee children that can be observed in children in early childhood and to determine the extent of the interaction of refugee children with other children. It is a case study which is one of the qualitative research methods. In this study, face-to-face interviews were conducted with 15 pre-school teachers, who had refugee children in their class, through the semi-structured interview form developed by the researchers. Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the data. As a result of the study, it was concluded that although there is no complete integration in the classes with refugee children, children do not have any prejudice or discriminatory behaviors towards refugee children, and even Turkish children cooperate with refugee children. In the education and adaptation of refugee children, it was concluded that the failure in speaking the Turkish language is an important obstacle, and the way in which children are raised in the family and cultural differences cause disciplinary problems in refugee children in some cases. It suggests that provision in the classroom of language and adaptation training for the integration of refugee children will help to integrate the cultural differences of children into the classroom environment.

This article explores the concept of the Relational Refugee Child (RRC), emphasising the importance of trauma-informed and culturally responsive approaches in fostering refugee students’ educational and social integration. Refugee children often navigate multifaceted layers of disconnection resulting from cultural, linguistic, and spatial barriers, which challenge their sense of belonging and participation in educational systems. Drawing on a qualitative study with sub-Saharan refugee students and their teachers in Algerian national schools, this article critically explores the relational dimensions of refugee education. It highlights how systemic factors such as language policies and perceptions around integration shape refugee students’ experiences. The study contends that trauma-informed practices, which centre the refugee child, are crucial in addressing the psychological and social burdens of displacement. Simultaneously, culturally and linguistically inclusive pedagogies that actively challenge the marginalisation of “low-prestige” cultures and languages may offer transformative potential by validating refugee students’ identities, fostering meaningful connections, and enhancing their sense of agency. These approaches counter the dominance of monolingual ideologies and recognise the profound cultural and motivational significance of minority languages and cultures. By situating refugee education within the broader framework of relational inclusion, this article advocates for an integrative approach that merges trauma-informed strategies with inclusive methodologies.

Given the growing concerns regarding the education of the rapidly increasing refugee children population around the world and the scholarly attention towards refugee education contexts in educational leadership and policy fields in recent years, we were urged to locate and understand the research contribution to the relevant knowledge base. This study, therefore, aims to systematically review the existing educational leadership and policy literature in relation to K-12 education of refugee children to demonstrate the overall trends of the related studies in terms of context (year, country, school level, and journal outlets), type of study, methodology, and topical focus. We conducted a systematic review of literature by following the steps identified by PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), including the processes regarding data sources, search, data collection, eligibility criteria, data selection, and data analysis. Overall, the results of our review suggest that educational policies addressing the refugee children and educational contexts shape the implementations of educational leaders and consequently the refugee students’ opportunities in schools. The results and implications for future research are discussed in more detail based on the results of the review.

In a classroom environment where refugee students are present, teachers' attitudes towards these students are considered to be one of the important key factors affecting the students' adaptation process to the education system and the society in which they live. Based on this important factor, the aim of the study was to improve teacher attitudes with the "Attitude Improvement Module towards Refugee Students" designed by the researchers and to contribute to professional development studies on the subject by taking teachers' views about the module. In the research process, an attitude scale was used to measure teachers' attitudes towards these students, covering the dimensions of communication, harmony and proficiency, it was applied to the teachers in the experimental and control groups before and after the module and the attitudes of the teachers before and after the module were analyzed. After the analyses, teachers' views were sought regarding the results. As a result of the quantitative analyses conducted in this mixed-method research, a decrease was observed in the arithmetic average of the communication and adaptation dimensions, while an increase was observed in the arithmetic average of proficiency in the dimension. According to the qualitative analysis, it was revealed that teachers had feelings such as "prejudices, inability to accept refugees, language problems" towards refugee students, but after the module was implemented, their feelings, such as "gaining awareness and empathic approach in refugee education", improved. Based on the findings, it is recommended to develop policies aimed at nurturing the emotional aspects of teachers as well as their proficiency in improving their attitudes towards refugee students. Keywords: refugee student education, improvement of teacher attitudes, mixed methods, exploratory sequential designs

Background: Exposure to traumatic events is common amongst children from refugee backgrounds. Given the restricted access of refugee children to formal specialist resources and disrupted parental support mechanisms in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), teachers are increasingly expected to be the primary responders to the complex psychosocial needs of trauma-exposed refugee children. However, despite LMICs hosting over two-thirds of the world’s refugee children, our current knowledge of how teachers respond to these needs is predominantly drawn from studies conducted in well-resourced, high-income countries, which fails to capture the unique experiences of teachers in inadequately resourced schools in LMICs.Objective: We aimed to explore qualitatively the experiences of school teachers in responding to the mental health and psychosocial needs of trauma-exposed refugee students in resource-poor settings. Method: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 30 teachers from eleven schools in socio-economically deprived communities in Iran. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.Results: Teachers expressed that establishing close relationships with refugee students works as a 'strategy' to identify the trauma-related mental health needs of this population. Almost all teachers strongly emphasised that achieving positive outcomes from their support efforts requires a collaborative home-school partnership, with refugee caregivers playing a fundamental role in this process. It was also described by teachers that a welcoming school climate facilitated refugee students’ sense of belonging and maximised their ability to offer support. Whereas schools were recognised as the most accessible place for disadvantaged refugee children to receive timely psychosocial support, teachers noted context-specific barriers, such as financial stress, that negatively influenced their capacity to continuously support refugee-background students.Conclusion: Our findings highlight the need to expand the evidence base to capture the unique experiences of LMIC refugees and those supporting them, and to develop contextually-culturally relevant training programmes to help teachers better respond to the unique needs of refugee students.

Background: Exposure to traumatic events is common amongst children from refugee backgrounds. Given the restricted access of refugee children to formal specialist resources and disrupted parental support mechanisms in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), teachers are increasingly expected to be the primary responders to the complex psychosocial needs of trauma-exposed refugee children. However, despite LMICs hosting over two-thirds of the world’s refugee children, our current knowledge of how teachers respond to these needs is predominantly drawn from studies conducted in well-resourced, high-income countries, which fails to capture the unique experiences of teachers in inadequately resourced schools in LMICs. Objective: We aimed to explore qualitatively the experiences of school teachers in responding to the mental health and psychosocial needs of trauma-exposed refugee students in resource-poor settings. Method: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 30 teachers from eleven schools in socio-economically deprived communities in Iran. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Teachers expressed that establishing close relationships with refugee students works as a ‘strategy’ to identify the trauma-related mental health needs of this population. Almost all teachers strongly emphasised that achieving positive outcomes from their support efforts requires a collaborative home-school partnership, with refugee caregivers playing a fundamental role in this process. It was also described by teachers that a welcoming school climate facilitated refugee students’ sense of belonging and maximised their ability to offer support. Whereas schools were recognised as the most accessible place for disadvantaged refugee children to receive timely psychosocial support, teachers noted context-specific barriers, such as financial stress, that negatively influenced their capacity to continuously support refugee-background students. Conclusion: Our findings highlight the need to expand the evidence base to capture the unique experiences of LMIC refugees and those supporting them, and to develop contextually-culturally relevant training programmes to help teachers better respond to the unique needs of refugee students.

In “Lost in Transit: Education for Refugee Children in Sweden, Germany, and Turkey,” chapter 13, Maurice Crul and his colleagues compare the ways in which three countries that have received large numbers of refugees are endeavoring to incorporate children into their disparate educational systems. The authors examine in detail the institutional arrangements most likely to shape the school trajectories of refugee children: 1) preschool; 2) entrance into compulsory schooling; 3) the so-called “welcome, submersion, or introduction classes”; 4) second-language instruction; 5) supports for teachers working with refugee students; 6) tracking; and 7) schooling after compulsory school. The programs vary greatly, and the results are varied. While both Germany and Sweden are struggling to provide equitable quality education to new arrivals, the situation in Turkey is bleak. Although Turkish law mandates the schooling of all minors regardless of nationality, about half of all refugee children in Turkey are not being educated in schools. Those who are enrolled in school “are in temporary education centers.” The authors suggest which educational institutional arrangements need to be in place to provide equal opportunities for refugee children to succeed in school.

The rapid increase in the number of refugees arriving in the last decade and the discussion about the integration of Syrian refugees into Turkish society has received special attention. As an important tool of socialisation in childhood, the educational system and school environment need to be structured using refugee‐friendly and equity‐based methods to meet the needs and expectations of refugee children. Based on the perceptions of school leaders and teachers, this study attempts to understand the challenges faced by Syrian refugee students during their integration into the school environment in Turkey and explore the practices of educators in meeting these challenges. A phenomenological qualitative design explored educators' beliefs, thoughts and experiences regarding the education of Syrian refugee children in Turkish schools. Participants of this research were 21 educators including 4 principals, 3 assistant principals, and 14 teachers working in primary and secondary schools with Syrian refugee students. The results show that Syrian refugee students in Turkey encounter various challenges as they adjust socio‐culturally, psychologically, and academically within the school setting. Although some of the teachers apply culturally relevant methodologies unconsciously, there is a gap in professional training on this. Educators declare the need for more practical and inclusive approaches despite the efforts by the Ministry of National Education. Hence, this study suggests the necessity of targeted training programmes because the purpose is to better equip teachers with effective strategies of integration. Thus, it is recommended that gradual language education and mutual cultural activities are widely applied to make refugee students feel more comfortable and to successfully improve their academic achievement. Context and implications Rationale for the study This research is motivated by the precarious situation of Syrian refugee students residing in Turkey. Why the new findings matter The new findings underline large gaps in culturally responsive pedagogy among educators and call forth the need for all‐round, hands‐on training programmes to better facilitate the academic and socio‐cultural integration of refugee children. The findings also reveal a gap in the familiarity and application of culturally responsive pedagogy among educators, pointing to a need for professional development in this area. Implications for practitioners, researchers and policy makers This paper, therefore, calls for the practical training of practitioners in culturally responsive pedagogy to become more supportive of their refugee students. A call is sent out to the framers of the educational policies, which incorporates comprehensive professional development along with inclusive education policies that address the requirements of refugee children. Building on these findings, researchers might explore systems, strategies, and interventions to effectively integrate displaced students into the classroom. The study thus requires collaborative efforts in the creation of supportive school environments that juxtapose socio‐cultural and academic success for quality education among refugee students.

The significant increase in refugees in Europe and worldwide during 2015 challenges the paradigm of refugee education. For many decades, ‘refugee education’ has been primarily associated with the education of refugees in countries far-away as the majority of the world’s displaced persons and refugees are hosted by countries in the Global South. However, the recent European ‘refugee crisis’, that is, the large influx of refugees and migrants in Europe, has definitely turned refugee education into a European issue. As refugee students from all over the world enter European classrooms, policy makers, educators and researchers need to rethink refugee education ‘at home’ in order to ensure quality and equity. As many refugees in Europe are here to stay, the challenge is how education can contribute to their inclusion in school as well as their integration into the host society. There is a great need for rethinking the education of refugees resettling in Europe and their inclusion in national school systems. How can universal principles of quality and equity for all students be implemented in national education policies, schools and classroom practice? The current challenges are complex and call for an interdisciplinary approach. Findings and perspectives from refugee education research as well as comparative and international education research can advance our understanding of these issues. This chapter argues for a holistic, whole-school approach to refugee education, which includes education policy, school structures, classroom practice, curricula, pedagogy and teaching materials, as well as cultural awareness and refugee competence.

For the first time, Lithuania has faced such a flow of refugee families with children, and it is natural that until now there is not enough experience and research in the education of refugee children in Lithuania. Until now, the focus has been on the integration and socialization of refugees, with very little attention paid to the education of refugee children in early childhood education settings. The education of refugee children and the opportunities to provide it globally became more important in 2022 when Ukrainian refugees were forced to flee their homes because of the war. This paper aims to reveal the experiences of Lithuanian teachers who, as soon as the war started, received refugee children in their classes without any prior information or adequate preparation. A study was carried out to uncover preschool teachers’ experiences of working with refugee children, so the following research questions are raised - what are the experiences of preschool teachers working with children with refugee status? What challenges do preschool teachers face? How do preschool teachers work with refugee children without official descriptions prepared by the State of Lithuania? A thematic analysis was applied. The results of the study revealed that pre-school teachers faced different educational challenges when educating refugee children: lack of foreign language skills, cultural differences, lack of support from professionals when working with refugee children, etc. The study found that teachers were intensively choosing self-initiated learning to improve their professional knowledge in order to ensure a quality education process for refugee children in early childhood education institutions. Teachers independently searched for suitable materials for the education of refugee children and adapted existing programs and guidelines to refugee children in their groups.