Abstract
Objective: In this study, we investigate the effect of flexible working time arrangements and parental leave experiences on the actual working and childcare hours of men.
 Background: Many fathers want to spend more time with their children and actively participate in family life, but, after becoming a parent, most work even more hours than before. To better combine work and family, the possibility of flexible working time arrangements might play a crucial role for fathers, also to become more involved in childcare activities.
 Method: We use longitudinal data of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) to examine how flexible working time arrangements, parental leave experiences, working hours, and childcare hours are related. Based on data between 2013 and 2019, panel regression models were estimated.
 Results: The results show that a change from fixed to flexible working time regulations leads to an increase in working hours for men and fathers. The longer working hours of fathers go hand in hand with a reduction in the time spent on childcare activities when switching to flexible working time arrangements. However, experiences with parental leave in connection with flexible working hours show a change in the use of time.
 Conclusion: Flexible working time regulations prove to be ambivalent for fathers: On the one hand, they offer fathers new leeway, on the other hand, due to traditional role models, they lead to longer working hours and thus less participation in childcare; but parental leave experiences make a difference, which indicates the importance of these regulations for fathers.
Highlights
In recent years, a new generation of fathers has emerged in modern societies
Flexible working time regulations prove to be ambivalent for fathers: On the one hand, they offer fathers new leeway, on the other hand, due to traditional role models, they lead to longer working hours and less participation in childcare; but parental leave experiences make a difference, which indicates the importance of these regulations for fathers
We investigate whether the effect of flexible working time arrangements on actual working hours differs between fathers and non-fathers in Germany and whether certain forms of flexible working time arrangements contribute to allowing more time for childcare activities
Summary
A new generation of fathers has emerged in modern societies. More and more fathers want to share family tasks and participate in childcare more taking the role of an engaged father (Risman 2018). Legal regulations and family policies influence the familial division of labour by supporting either a more traditional male breadwinner model, such as in the Continental European countries Germany and the Netherlands, or a dual-earner dual-career model, such as in the Scandinavian countries Finland, Norway, and Denmark (Aboim 2010; Edlund & Öun 2016; Bünning & Pollmann-Schult 2016). Countries supporting dualearner dual-career families tend to support norms that involve the liberation of men and women from traditional gender roles (Bünning 2015; Sjöberg 2004), committing themselves to gender equality (Gornick & Meyers 2003)
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