“Food Security” versus Cash Transfers: Comparative Analysis of Social Security Approaches in India and Brazil

This article discusses the food and nutrition security situation in CARICOM countries through the lens of a conceptual model that links food, nutrition and health. Based upon a review of relevant literature and judicious use of country-level official data, the authors make the case for policy makers to take a more proactive approach to the implementation of their respective national food and nutrition security policies. This recommendation is made in light of the increasing acuity of key food and nutrition security problems that continue to plague these countries, including high food import-dependence, and the prevalence of obesity and overweight, which are risk factors in the increasing prevalence of chronic, non-communicable diseases, the main public health problems in the region. These, and related food and nutrition security problems, continue to exist despite progress made by CARICOM countries at the policy level with the formulation of regional and national food and nutrition security policies, and associated action plans. Within these policies and action plans, food and nutrition security is conceptualized in terms of food availability, access, nutritional adequacy and the stability of these three components. Moreover, they stipulated food, nutrition and health goals for the agricultural and the entire food systems. Despite these achievements, the implementation of food and nutrition security policies and action plans in the region has not proceeded with the same urgency that motivated their formulation, namely to address the pressing food and nutrition problems in the countries of this region.

Economic Reforms and Food Security

The purpose and objectives of the studyThe purpose of the dissertation is to develop promising areas of trade and economic cooperation between the People's Republic of China and the EAEU countries in the context of solving the problem of food security in modern economic conditions.To achieve the goal of the study, the followingtasks were set and solved:–to consider the theoretical aspects of the country's food security, the effects and risks of its decline;–to study the world experience of forming food security of countries;–to study the state policy of China in the field of ensuring food security;–to assess the export opportunities in the food sector of the EAEU countries;–to identify and justify promising areas of food exports to the PRC by the EAEU countries, as well as the implementation of joint investment projects in the field of agriculture.The object of the study is trade and economic cooperation between the People's Republic of China and the EAEU countries in the field of ensuring food security.The subject of the study is the substantiation of the main directions of ensuring food security based on the development of mutually beneficial cooperation between the People's Republic of China and the EAEU countries, the development of the export potential of states, and the improvement of investment activities.Provisions submitted for defense1. The essence and content of the category "food security" are defined, distinctive characteristics and criteria for assessing the level of food security are identified.2. An assessment of the position of the People's Republic of China in the field of food security is carried out, the evolution of changes in the nutritional structure of the population of the PRC is considered,3. Factors complicating the solution of the food problem in the country, the dependence of the domestic food market of China on imports of food products, and strategic directions for ensuring food security in China are identified.4. The reduction of food security risks in each of the EAEU member states has been revealed, which is primarily facilitated by mutual provision of various types of food products, prospects for the sustainable development of agriculture, ensuring the growth of physical availability of food products in the Union countries, self-sufficiency in basic agricultural products have been established5. The potential for cooperation between the countries of the Eurasian region in the field of agriculture and its importance for solving the food problem in China have been established, as well as the main areas of development of agricultural exports from the EAEU countries to China: commodity structure, volumes, dynamics and prospects for expanding volumes and improving the quality of products.Personal contribution of the applicantThe dissertation is an independently completed scientific study: the provisions submitted for defense have been developed by the author independently, have practical significance, the topic of the dissertation corresponds to the specialty 7-06-0311-01 "Economics".Dissertation approval and information on the use of its resultsThe main provisions, conclusions and results of the dissertation were presented at the 75th scientific and technical conference of pupils, students and master's students, April 22-27, 2024 - Minsk: Belarusian State Technological University. Based on the materials of the dissertation research, an article was published on the topic"The problem of food security and the main directions of its solution in the People's Republic of China".Structure and volume of the dissertationThe dissertation consists of an introduction, a general description of the work, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references. Chapter 1 studies theoretical approaches to the study of the problem of food security, considers the concept of "food security" and its distinctive features, defines the stages of formation of modern approaches to this global problem, and formulates the risks and threats of violating the country's food security. Chapter 2 considers methodological approaches to assessing the food security of states and regions of the world, and provides an overview of the criteria for measuring the level of food security and self-sufficiency of the country in food. The third chapter includes a study of the state policy of China and the countries of the Eurasian region in the field of development of food security, substantiation of the main directions of trade and economic cooperation of the EAEU countries and China in the field of agriculture and ensuring food security of states. The work is presented on 98 pages. The volume occupied by 8 figures, 24 tables and a list of used literature, including 38 sources, is 18 pages.

Aggregate estimates of food expenditure are consistent with such a possibility, implying income/expenditure elasticities close to one. However, the high degree of aggregation at which such estimates are made means that the considerable increase in price per nutrient as income increases is ignored, and the nutrient elasticities are therefore overstated. Estimates for a rural south Indian sample indicate that this bias is considerable and that the true nutrient elasticities with respect to income may be close to zero.

Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th

A fundamental challenge the world faces today is ensuring that millions of households living in poverty have access to enough food to maintain a healthy life. Africa over the years has been looking for ways to solving the problem of food security and it is an important topic in discussions of Africa leaders. While there are national data on food security and poverty, information on rural food security and poverty are not readily available especially in Nigeria. This study, therefore, employed disccriminant analysis to examine the levels and the major determinants of food security and poverty among the rural households who are the major producers of food in Nigeria. Using the basic calorie and protein requirement per capita of households, our result revealed that accessibility to health facilities; household size, farm size and household expenditure on food were the major determinants of a household’s food security status. Non-farm income was a major determinant of the probability of a household being non-poor. The study suggests family planning as well as specific programmes targeted at the rural poor and food insecure as policy options.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) address food and nutrition security with goal number two. Food and nutrition security is a complicated issue, and understanding its future requires insights into (i) food availability, (ii) food access, (iii) food utilisation, and (iv) food stability. Not all these dimensions are covered by the SDG2 and its indicators. A unique feature of this paper is that it focuses on the first three dimensions of food security in addition to the prevalence of undernourishment (SDG indicator 2.1.1). Here we explore future food security in the absence of dedicated policies, to derive the ‘policy gap’ for this goal. The internationally agreed shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) are quantified using a computable general equilibrium model (MAGNET) coupled with an integrated assessment model (IMAGE) that enable a linkage between income and expenditures given segmented labour markets. Based on the three dimensions of food security our results showed a less optimistic outlook than based on previous studies. Food availability is projected to improve in all 5 SSP scenarios, except South Asia in SSP3 due to serious land constraints. As a result, the number of undernourished people decreases in most scenarios, becoming increasingly concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. However, undernourishment stays high in SSP4 (550 million people) and increases to over two billion people in SSP3. Food access generally improves due to higher agricultural and non-agricultural wages of unskilled workers. However, due to lock-in effects the wages of unskilled agricultural workers might decline, leading to reduced food access in SSP3, SSP4 and SSP2. The indicator of food utilisation shows food security problems for Sub-Saharan Africa in SSP3 and SSP4. Our results indicate that food security problems remain and that effective policies are needed to achieve food security for all.

An important challenge today is to strengthen food security and improve people's lives through increasing competitive products. The crucial vector of forming food security is activities of agricultural business, which are directly responsible to the people for providing sufficient high-quality food. In terms of the desire of Ukraine to integrate as a full partner in the European and world community, the problem of food security is of special significance. The need for food security of Ukraine requires maintaining an appropriate level of food self-sufficiency, which involves the use of state support for domestic agricultural producers and measures of import controls to protect own producers from foreign competition. Subject. The combination of theoretical, methodological approaches and organizational measures to create mechanisms in order to ensure food security at regional level. Methods. Methods of comparison, analysis, theoretical and logical synthesis, graphical method are used. The methodological basis is a comprehensive research method. Purpose. The purpose of the research is to substantiate the need to develop mechanisms to ensure food security of regions in transition to the concept of sustainable development. Results. It is established that the priorities of sustainable development of the agricultural sector in the region are the formation of food security, at the same time, a set of principles is defined that ensure sustainable development of regions; food security indicators are formed for the people of the region. Components of mechanisms are proposed, which regulate food security of regions and contribute to provision of the population with quality products in sufficient quantity. It is found that the basis for monitoring food security in the region and development of mechanisms to ensure it is the reproduction approach that will help to reveal the totality of processes of “production-distributionexchange- consumption” in the defined territory, and to develop a mechanism of management on this basis. Creation of the Complex Regional Program for Food Quality and Security Assurance is proposed, which should include issues of improving mechanisms of protection of the regional food market from low-quality and dangerous products; creation of economic, institutional and social conditions, and mechanisms of wide implementation at the enterprise level of the quality and environment management system as the most effective tool for ensuring quality and security of products meeting the requirements and expectations of consumers.

This paper reviews status of public distribution system and its relationship with the problem of food security and poverty incidence among the north-eastern states of India. Poverty indices for all the states in the NE region are calculated. It appears that the PDS is widely accessible to the households in the region; it is lack of purchasing power that comes in the way of ensuring food security in the region. The problem of food security in these states is due to general underdevelopment of the region. Therefore, for improving food security situation in the region, the income generating opportunities are to be created and made accessible to the poor household especially in the rural areas. We also found that the access to PDS does not affect poverty incidence significantly among the north-eastern states of India.

1. Introduction In the modern global economy, countries actively cooperate, exchanging goods and services. However, some countries are export-oriented and gain advantages from international trade while preserving national production, and other countries import too much and lose national sovereignty, with their own production declining and taking them into a trap, with them being unable to independently satisfy internal demand. The general quantitative criterion of measuring the level of import dependence of countries is the trade balance. Significant excess of import over export is critical and threatens national security of the country. However, an important role here belongs to high-quality analysis of foreign economic activities of the country. A person can survive without most of goods and services, so their import is not critical, while dependence on the import of so-called inferior or essential goods is a serious threat, as a person cannot live without them. The essential goods include accommodation, basic clothes, and food. Need for construction and basic textile production, is, as a rule, satisfied by internal production, but many countries cannot independently satisfy their internal demand for food products. This brings up a problem of food security. That's why the most serious threat is posed by country's dependence on food import. The reason for such dependence is lack or low level of agribusiness and, correspondingly, elimination of this reason allows solving the problem of national food security. This causes the topicality of study of perspectives and search for new tools of agribusiness development. This research offers the hypothesis that concessional lending is a perspective tool of agribusiness development. The purpose of the article is to verify this hypothesis, determine the advantages, and develop recommendations for the use of concessional lending for agribusiness development. 2. Subject The object of the research is agribusiness in non-food countries. The topic of the research is organizational & economic and managerial connections and relations which emerge in the process of use of concessional lending as a tool of development of agribusiness in non-food countries. Non-food countries are countries that do not specialize in agricultural production due to unfavorable natural and climatic situation, but are interested in development of national agribusiness for provision of national food security. 3. Materials and methods Analysis of works of modern scientists on the problem of development of agribusiness showed that most of research is devoted to substantiation of expedience and necessity for development of agribusiness; among them are the works of (Garthwaite et al., 2015), (He, 2015), (Jacknowitz et al., 2015), (Maitra & Rao, 2015), (Mazaeva and Rogachev, 2012), and (Bannikova et al., 2015). Also, a large number of works are oriented at allocation of national peculiarities of development of agribusiness and solving the problems of particular socio-economic systems, related to provision of food security: (Grouiez, 2012), (Bernardes, 2015), and (Medernach & Burnod, 2013). However, there is a lack of research, devoted to the search for perspective tools of development of agribusiness which are universal for various countries, which reflects the necessity for further studies in this sphere. As a method for determining the perspectives of development of agribusiness, this work uses SWOT-analysis. Also, the article uses the method of factor analysis for allocation of the factors of agribusiness development, method of institutional analysis for allocation of current and innovational means of influencing these factors, and method of problem analysis for determining the ley problems of development of agribusiness and search for their solution. In order to determine the limits of the research and simplify the work with the research object, the work uses the methods of modeling of socio-economic systems and systemic analysis. …

The work is devoted to the problem of ensuring food and social security in the Republic of Crimea, which is due to the fact that food security is a factor that has a major impact on the welfare and standard of living of the population. The criteria for ensuring food security are determined, a system of indicators characterizing the criteria for an integral indicator of the food security of the region is presented. The assessment of the state of food and social security of the Republic of Crimea for the period 2014-2018, which is due to the most difficult transition period of Crimea's entry into Russia, has been carried out. The work assesses the state of food and social security of the Republic of Crimea for 2014-2018, identifies threats to ensuring food security. As a result of the study, a decrease in the production of livestock and crop production was found. The reasons for the decrease in the growth rate of agricultural production in the Crimea have been determined. The direct impact of food security on social security has been established, threats to the social development of the labor force of the Republic of Crimea have been analyzed and identified. An assessment of the population of the Republic of Crimea with monetary incomes below the subsistence level was carried out, which showed that 20-23% of the region's population live below the poverty line. Analysis of the demographic situation in the Republic of Crimea revealed the threat of rapid aging of the population, i.e. there is an increase in the number of citizens of retirement age in the general structure of the region's population. Population shrinking is a threat to social security. The conducted research and the conclusions made made it possible to develop proposals and recommendations for ensuring food and social security, solving social problems and increasing the standard of living of the population.

This article provides both a theoretical and empirical evidence on the role of urban agriculture (UA) to food and nutrition security as well as poverty reduction in urban areas, which have persisted as policy challenges in Africa. While countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa have taken agricultural interventions at the centre of addressing food and nutrition security in rural areas, UA does not feature well in urban food and poverty reduction policies in Tanzania. This creates policy gaps between the global, regional and national policies towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goal-2 of Zero hunger by 2030 and the African Union Agenda 2063 on food and nutrition. This study derives from the nexus of theories of urban sprawls and urban food systems which consider urbanisation and the associated demographic changes posing unprecedented challenges in terms of hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition. Based on a cross-sectional research design, the study employed a mixed-methods approach, collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, and a systematic review of the literature. A sample of 600 respondents was selected using purposive sampling from a target population of 6,000, consisting of adult male and female farmers, agri-food supply chain producers, food processors, input suppliers, distributors, and traders in urban and peri-urban areas of Tanzania. The study examined and confirmed the contribution of urban agriculture on food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization in urban households. A systematic literature review shows a multitude of benefits of urban agriculture on food availability, accessibility, nutrient utilization and stability. The examined literature shows potential of UA to overcome youth unemployment as they engage into urban agricultural activities and therefore contribute to income and poverty reduction. Findings provides an understanding of inadequate policy enabling environment for UA as n frameworks for increasing food security. However, UA is being practiced without legitimate policy and legal frameworks. The study recommends for institutionalization of UA as a pathway for attaining food and nutrition security and poverty reduction and therefore, calls for policy agenda setting to create space for UA in city policies and planning.

The article is devoted to the study of conceptual issues of ensuring food and environmental security at the global level. In modern conditions, the problems of environmental and food security and its provision are becoming one of the most important issues and are of particular relevance. World population growth rates that are faster than the rate of food and agricultural production, as well as declining trends in the resources used to produce staple foods, further exacerbate the problem. The risks and threats to environmental security, which are directly related to food security issues, are analyzed. Factors hindering the development of food security have been identified. The strategic directions for the development of food and environmental security in the context of global transformation and their contribution to maintaining sustainable food self-sufficiency of the state are determined. The study showed that environmental and food security is politically and economically manipulated by state interests, which leads to an urgent need for reforms to ensure an innovative way of development and functioning of countries in order to reduce their dependence on external economic markets.

The present text offers a summary of some of the crucial food security problems in Latin American (LA) countries. This region, like many others in the globe, confronts such as food safety difficulties. The summary offers also an analysis of some technologically based solutions for LA food security issues. As a general call, the present review article calls for a collaborative and transdisciplinary approach to think deeper about how to solve food security problems, putting the focus on enabling technologies within a context of social, market, and global trends to achieve food and nutritional security. The review is positioned far from techno‐optimisms and, at the same time, away from purely economic‐based solutions. Conversely, this review embraces the whole complexity that brings economy‐nature‐technology triad. Embracing such complex relationships between technology, nature and the socio‐economy aspects of food security LA issues. Such complexity also triggers a need for a solution that considers a renewed approach to sustainability in the whole food value chain from production to consumption. Sustainability in the value chain opens up a much‐needed approach to LA food security that broadens, and refresh, our understanding of this fundamental socio‐economic and technical phenomena.

Implementing food security within the provisions of applicable laws and regulations to accelerate the realization of community welfare through improving services, empowerment, and community participation, as well as increasing regional competitiveness by taking into account the principles of democracy, equality, justice, and the uniqueness of a region. One of them is the Berau Regency, which still needs a statutory policy that regulates food security. Even if there is a policy that regulates food security, this policy is not statutory. It can be considered insufficientinsufficient to resolve the problem of food security in the Berau Regency. This research aims to analyze and provide recommendations for regional regulations regarding food security. The method used is mixed research methods. The research results show that East Kalimantan has the highest level of food security. However, there are still quite a lot of problems faced by the region in implementing food security, namely the conversion of agricultural land, resulting in environmental damage and global climate change. Legal and political policy intervention is a form of fulfilling the obligations and commitment of regional governments as regional government administrators in the context of implementing food security and fulfilling needs to resolve various food security problems that are currently occurring, as well as an effort to prevent other food security problems in the future.