Food loss in India: water footprint, land footprint and GHG emissions

The water footprint is consumption-based indicator of water use. Water footprint is defined as the total volume of both indirect and the direct freshwater used for producing goods and services consumed by individuals or inhabitants of community. There are many studies regarding the direct water use but studies incorporating both direct and indirect water use is deficient. This study tries to estimate total volume of water based on the consumption pattern of different commodities by individuals of Kathmandu Metropolitan city using extended water footprint calculator. The average water footprint of individuals appears to be 1145.52 m3/yr. The indirect and direct water footprint appears to be 1070.82 Mm3/yr and 46.59 Mm3/yr respectively which cumulatively give the total water footprint of Kathmandu Metropolitan City of 1117.40 Mm3/yr. This volume is equal to 2.27 times the annual flow the River Bagmati. The indirect water footprint includes food water footprint of 1055.60 Mm3/yr or 2.14 times the annual flow and industrial water use of 15.22 Mm3/yr or 0.03 times the annual flow while the direct water footprint includes domestic water use of 46.59 Mm3/yr or 0.09 times the annual flow. In food water footprint, cereals consumption shared the highest contribution of 34.82% followed by meat consumption with share of 32.62% in total water footprint. Per capita per day water use of inhabitants appears to be 3138 liters which includes water use in food items of 2965 liters, industrial water use of 43 liters and domestic water use of 131 liters. The per capita per day domestic water use is 90 liters more than supplement of 41 liters by the water operator of Kathmandu Valley. Per capita per day domestic water use is already 5 liters more than expected improvement in water supplement of 126 liters per capita per day in 2025 after accomplishment of Melamchi water project. And, it is expected to increase further observing the rapid urbanization of Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The study showed water footprint of individuals is directly related to food consumption behavior, life style and services used therefore it is necessary to initiate water offsetting measures at individual level and water operator to find environmentally sustainable alternatives along with ongoing water project to fulfill demand. J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vol. 28, 2014: 73-80

Assessing and mitigating the water footprint of a business can reduce the risks associated with potential freshwater shortages. Because water is vital in the supply chain and operations of all major industries, depletion of freshwater sources, increases in demand of water, and droughts can threaten a company’s production, financial stability, and reputation. Consequently, it is essential to identify water vulnerability in a business’s operational portfolio and to ensure that the business’s water management aligns with its overall sustainability strategies. Furthermore, understanding a business’s water footprint allows for effective resource management, which can help minimize costs and reduce its environmental impact. Currently, interest in the water footprints of organizations, products, and services is increasing, creating a need for a shared standard of definitions and methodologies for water metering and reporting. In addition, consistent methodologies for including embedded and indirect water use and a uniform application of analysis boundaries need to be developed. This research aims to develop an accounting methodology for water reporting along with tools for identifying opportunities to improve water efficiency. Additionally, existing definitions, approaches, and best practices for measuring, reporting, and managing water use across different industries are summarized. A conceptual model was developed to evaluate the lifecycle water footprint, including direct and indirect (embedded in energy and materials) water use in both supply chains and operations. Further, a case study is considered to assess the water impact of a mixed-use facility in Palo, Alto, California. Comprehensive water, electricity, and gas metering data were collected for this site, and the water uses of California’s energy mix were determined. Finally, this data set was utilized to summarize direct and indirect water use at a corporate site, and recommendations of water conservation and reuse for this site are considered. Future work includes development of validation and optimization approaches for minimizing water usage. The model was built such that it can be expanded to include multiple sites in the global supply chain in order to estimate worldwide water usage throughout a large company’s operations.

SummaryUrban areas (especially cities) are challenged in meeting their direct water needs from local sources. They also exert strain on global water resources through their indirect (virtual) water use. Agencies concerned with urban water management have visions and goals for managing direct water use, but indirect use is only inferred in more global visions for sustainable consumption. There is limited quantification of “urban water performance” at the macro urban scale (whole of city) to monitor progress toward these goals. It is constrained by a lack of clarity about the evaluation approaches that best serve them. We ask, How can the evaluation approaches described in literature advance urban water management goals? We reviewed the utility of eight evaluation approaches, including urban water system modeling, urban metabolism (territorial and mass balance), consumption (life cycle assessment, water footprinting, and input‐output analysis), and complex systems (ecological network analysis and systems dynamics) approaches. We found that urban metabolism based on water mass balance is a core method for generating information to inform current goals for direct urban water use, with potential for being “coupled” with the other approaches. Consumption approaches inform the management of indirect water use. We describe this in a framework for urban water evaluation to give greater clarity to this field and flag the further research that would be needed to progress this. It includes the recommendation to differentiate the evaluation of direct and indirect urban water, but to also interpret them together.

Food losses and waste (FLW) reduction and mitigating climate impact in food chains are priorities in achieving sustainable development goals. However, many FLW-reducing interventions induce additional greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, for example, from energy, fuel, or packaging. The net effect of such interventions (expressed in GHG emissions per unit of food available for consumption) is not obvious, as is illustrated in a number of case studies. We recommend that in the decision to take on FLW-reducing interventions, the trade-offs on sustainability impacts (such as GHG emissions) are taken into consideration. Since FLW induce demand and extra operations in all stages along a supply chain, adequate representation of cumulative GHG emissions along the production and supply chain, including ‘hidden parts’ of the chain, is required, which is challenging in full LCA studies. As a workaround, the case studies in this paper are based on a generic tool, the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emission (ACE) calculator that includes metrics and data for common food product categories and supply chain typologies. The calculator represents the structure of a generic (fresh food) supply chain and offers data sets for, amongst others, crop GHG emission factors and FLW in different stages of the production and distribution chain. Through scenario calculations with different chain parameters (describing pre and post-intervention scenarios), the net effects of an intervention on GHG emissions and FLW per unit of food sold to the consumer can be compared with little effort. In the case studies, interventions at the production stage as well as in post-harvest operations, are analyzed. Results show that post-harvest activities (especially FLW) contribute substantially to the carbon footprint of supplied food products. The FLW-reducing interventions are considered to induce additional GHG emissions. In most case studies, FLW-reducing interventions lower total GHG associated with a unit of food supplied to a client or consumer. However, in one case study, the extra emissions due to the intervention were higher than the prevented emission from lowering food losses. Consequently, in the latter case, the intervention is not an effective GHG emission reduction intervention.

Efficient land use represents a global challenge in the context of high levels of food loss (FL) and waste (FLW) and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from global agricultural activities. This study aimed to estimate the land footprint (LF) associated with FL worldwide. It also estimated the GHG emissions from crop residues and their burning, and their relationship with food loss for the main crops worldwide. The study analyzed data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) regarding land use, FL, and global GHG emissions from crop residues. The findings suggest that the average LF associated with FL worldwide is about 69million ha per year, and the main food items responsible for most of the LF associated with FL are maize, wheat, and rice. The annual average emissions derived from burning crop residues of FL are 48.8 kilotons year-1 of CH4 and 1.26 kilotons year-1 of N2 O, and the emission of N2 O derived from crop residues of FL is about 24.1 kilotons year-1 , considering the three crops. Food loss implies high levels of LF and GHG emissions, reinforcing the need for proper public and private initiatives worldwide to reduce FL and waste (FLW). Organizations such as the FAO and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) should incorporate indicators regarding FLW reduction to evaluate and monitor countries' performance. An international agreement also needs to be addressed to engage the world's nations in the reduction of FLW levels. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Estimating the direct and indirect water use of tourism in the eastern Mediterranean

Abstract. To meet both the Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), nations, sectors, counties and cities need to move towards a sustainable energy system in the next couple of decades. Such energy system transformations will impact water resources to varying extents, depending on the transformation strategy and fuel choices. Sweden is considered to be one of the most advanced countries towards meeting the SDGs. This paper explores the geographical origin of and the current water use associated with the supply of energy in the 21 regional counties of Sweden. These energy-related uses of water represent indirect, but still relevant, impacts for water management and the related SDG on clean water and sanitation (SDG 6). These indirect water impacts are here quantified and compared to reported quantifications of direct local water use, as well as to reported greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as one example of other types of environmental impacts of local energy choices in each county. For each county, an accounting model is set up based on data for the local energy use in year 2010, and the specific geographical origins and water use associated with these locally used energy carriers (fuels, heat and electricity) are further estimated and mapped based on data reported in the literature and open databases. Results show that most of the water use associated with the local Swedish energy use occurs outside of Sweden. Counties with large shares of liquid biofuel exhibit the largest associated indirect water use in regions outside of Sweden. This indirect water use for energy supply does not unambiguously correlate with either the local direct water use or the local GHG emissions, although for the latter, there is a tendency towards an inverse relation. Overall, the results imply that actions for mitigation of climate change by local energy choices may significantly affect water resources elsewhere. Swedish counties are thus important examples of localities with large geographic zones of water influence due to their local energy choices, which may compromise water security and the possibility to meet water-related global goals in other world regions.

During the last years, the city of Hong Kong has made large investments to make its urban water supply system more water efficient and sustainable. As such, its municipal water abstraction – often defined as direct water use – has decreased from 355 litre per capita per day (l/cap/d) in 2005 to 326 l/cap/d in 2013. Due to its political history, Hong Kong is unique in the world in data availability on urban food consumption. It is therefore the ideal case study to show typical urban food consumption behaviour and its related indirect water use. The objective of this paper is to show the large water quantities associated with indirect water use and that the citizens of Hong Kong can additionally save much more water by looking at this indirect water use. The current average diet in Hong Kong is very different to the average Chinese diet. It is characterised by a high intake of water intensive products like animal products and sugar, leading to a food related indirect water use or water footprint (WFcons) of 4727 l/cap/d. According to recommendations from the Chinese Nutrition Society for a healthy diet, the intake of some product groups should be increased (vegetables and fruit) and of other product groups reduced (sugar, crop oils, meat and animal fats). This would result in a reduction of the WFcons of 40% to 2852 l/cap/d. Especially the reduced intake of meat (including offals) from currently 126 kg per capita per year (kg/cap/yr) to the recommended value 27 kg/cap/yrwould results in a substantial WFcons reduction. Meat consumption in Hong Kong is extremely high. A pesco-vegetarian diet would result in a reduction of 49% (to 2398 l/cap/d) and a vegetarian diet in a 53% (to 2224 l/cap/d) reduction. Hong Kong citizens can thus save a lot of water through a change in their diet. Many of the products consumed, contribute to different levels of blue water scarcity in the regions of origin Hong Kong imports from. This poses a water-related risk to food security in Hong Kong. As all diet scenarios also result in a lower blue WFcons, they decrease this risk. In order to become sustainable, (mega)cities should reduce their dependency on distant resources and ecosystems.

The main objective of this paper is to identify the most important direct and indirect sources of water use in the Croatian economy and, based on that, to identify the key drivers of water use in the process of Croatian national production. For this purpose, water extended input-output model was constructed and empirically applied in the paper, based on which the indicators of direct, indirect, and cumulative water intensities of production sectors in the Croatian economy have been quantified and analysed, including their cumulative and indirect water use multipliers. Using the aforementioned model, the paper also assesses and analyses domestic, net imported, and total water footprints of production sectors in the Croatian economy, as well as the relative strength of pull-and-push effects of their water use. For the purpose of model construction, the last published input-output table of the Croatian economy for 2010 and the reference data of the Croatian official water statistics were used. The results of the model indicate that direct and indirect water use flows in the Croatian economy are mostly determined by intermediate processes of generating and using the output of the power, chemical, and oil-processing sector. Through the application of the model, it has also been found that these sectors dominate in the structure of the total water footprint of the Croatian economy, whereby the Republic of Croatia, overall, achieves a surplus in the international exchange of virtual waters. Given the new findings on indirect and cumulative water use flows in the Croatian economy, the author’s recommendation is that the multiplicative effects of inter-sectoral dependencies in the processes of national production on the total water use must be taken into account when conducting future activities of planning, management, and protection of Croatian water resources.

Conventional indicators of water use for urban areas account primarily for direct water use. In contrast, our objective here is to employ the water footprint (WF) concept and methodology to include the virtual or indirect water use to assess the production‐side and consumption‐side WF of 65 United States (U.S.) cities. The 65 cities include the largest metropolitan areas and some of the major mid‐sized cities in the U.S. We use metropolitan areas to define our city boundaries as this is the native spatial resolution of the main datasets used. To estimate the urban WFs, we integrated large and disparate datasets, including commodity flow (agricultural, livestock, and industrial commodities), water use, and socioeconomic data. By analyzing the estimated WF values, we found indirect water use accounts on average for 66% of the WF of consumption. We found some cities are net virtual water exporters (11 of 65) because they rely heavily on direct water uses or are heavy producers of industrial commodities. Also, WF patterns vary widely across the U.S. but regional patterns seem to emerge. For example, the dense cities of the U.S. northeast megaregion have a significantly low per capita WF relative to the other cities, while cities in the Gulf Coast megaregion have a significantly higher industrial WF of production and consumption. Furthermore, there is inequality in the WF of consumption where a few cities account for a disproportionate share of the total U.S. urban water uses.

Over the last few decades, Morocco has been undergoing a strong and fast water demand increase due to demographic upsurge, irrigated agriculture expansion, flourishing foreign trade and changing standard of living and lifestyles. The continued increase of water demand has imposed a height pressure over national scare water resources. Despite this worrying situation, the imperative of sustainable water use and management has created a need for compulsory information to define and implement economic and water-saving policies in an integrated and informed manner. This paper uses an input–output model of water use to analyse the relationships between economic sectors and water resources use in Morocco (i.e. direct water use) as well as the intersectoral water relationships (i.e. indirect water use). The results show that, on the one hand, Agriculture, hunting and forestry sector exhibits high direct water use. On the other hand, secondary and tertiary sectors display low direct use and high indirect water use. Typical examples of sectors with high indirect water use are manufacture of food and tobacco products and hotels and restaurants sectors. Further by means of the impact analysis, we have demonstrated that the economic sectors whose indirect water use coefficients are high have a significant influence on water resources by means of their “drag effect” on water use of other sectors. The results highlight the added value of conducting an analysis of the intersectoral water relationships and suggest that it is important to take into account in the processes of policy definition not only the direct water use but also the indirect water use, because neglecting them could threaten our water resources.

Water use of a biomass direct-combustion power generation system in China: A combination of life cycle assessment and water footprint analysis

Introduction: Due to the global changes, fresh water became scarce in many geographical realities. In this domain, education can play a significant role, contributing to the sustainable water management.Objectives: Estimate the Water Footprint (WF) of young people, including their direct and indirect water uses. Develop an educational application that aims to exemplify measures which lead to water conservation in their daily activities.Methods: Two questionnaires. The first one was formulated in order to estimate the average WF of a young person, and the second one to establish the basis of the educational application. Samples included 82 students in the 12 – 15 age range.Results: The average WF of a student is 3223±830 L/day. The total indirect water use is over 10 times higher than direct use. Food accounts for the major part (84.4 %) of young person’s WF, and in the second place of indirect uses is clothing-related WF (6.4 %). Among analysed food groups, meat has the largest contribution (39.6 %) to the total personal WF. For both genders, high direct water use (264 L/day) is due in large part to long showers.Conclusions: Young people consume too much fresh water, what suggests the need to improve their behaviour in terms of eating habits, clothing and shower duration.

Author(s): Winans, K; Marvinney, E; Gillman, A; Spang, E | Abstract: The majority of the environmental impacts associated with the agri-food supply chain occur at the production phase. Interests in using life-cycle assessment (LCA) for accounting for agri-food supply chains as well as food losses and waste (FLW) has increased in recent years. Here, for the first time, we estimate production-phase embedded resources and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in California specialty crops considering on-farm food losses. We use primary, survey-derived qualitative and quantitative data to consider on-farm food loss prevention and avoided GHG emissions through two different scenarios applied in an illustrative example for processing peach at the production stage. Further, we contribute a mathematical approach for accounting for discrete, unique flows within the net flow of loss in a supply chain, in LCA. Through the detailed LCAs, we identify the hotspots for the four crops as on-farm diesel use, fertilizer application, direct water use, and electricity for irrigation pumping. Impacts from cultivation practices and the additional impacts from on-farm food losses vary significantly by crop. Including the losses in the LCAs resulted in increases in overall resource use and GHG emissions by 4–38% (percent varies depending on the crop type). We used the LCA models and a set of straightforward calculations to evaluate the environmental impacts of a prevention action (a 50% reduction in on-farm food losses) and the secondary use of end-of-life (EOL) biomass from processing peach. The results of this evaluation showed an 11% reduction in GHG emissions compared to the baseline (full harvest). In conclusion, by explicitly including the impacts of on-farm food losses in LCA, we highlight challenges and opportunities to target interventions that simultaneously reduce these losses and the associated environmental impacts in agricultural systems.

Water, land and carbon footprints of sheep and chicken meat produced in Tunisia under different farming systems