Food and energy security: exploring the challenges of attaining secure and sustainable supplies of food and energy

Given the rise in human population and the inevitable consequences of climate change, the challenges of achieving secure and sustainable supplies of both food and energy are Herculean. With the launch of this open access, multidisciplinary journal, our intention is to offer a forum for the discussion of the most important advances in this field and to promote an integrative approach of scientific disciplines.

Energy supply sustainability is an important issue in the field of energy security. To successfully achieve the goals of sustainable economic and social development and to implement the “Paris Agreement”, we need to accurately evaluate and predict the energy supply sustainability of countries or regions. However, it is very difficult to evaluate and predict energy supply sustainability, because it belongs to a complex multi-attribute decision-making problem. This paper proffered a new definition of the energy supply sustainability in China and put forward sixteen indicators for it from the four dimensions of energy availability, economic sustainability, environmental sustainability and technical sustainability. First, the energy supply sustainability index (ESSI) was quantified by a comprehensive evaluation method. Secondly, based on the exponential smoothing and GM(1,1) prediction models, two ideas were put forward to predict the sustainable level of China’s energy supply, enriching the theoretical study of energy security prediction. The study found that: (1) China’s energy supply sustainability index changes dynamically; it has an asymmetric “W” trend from 2000 to 2016. The energy supply sustainability level of China is low; it cannot satisfy the Chinese people’s need for high-quality eco-energy products or the needs of social sustainable development. The three indicators of reserve and production ratio, production diversity and clean power generation are very important to China’s energy supply sustainability. (2) Referring to the accuracy criteria, the Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the Exponential smoothing-GM(1,1) hybrid model for forecasting China’s energy supply sustainability is only 2%, and the Root mean square error (RMSE) is 0.0278; therefore, it is suitable for use in the forecasting of the energy supply sustainability level in China. (3) In the short term, from 2017 to 2020, many unsustainable factors remain within China’s energy supply, and the sustainable level is level II. In the long term, the sustainable level of China’s energy supply will be greatly improved and will increase to 0.8765 by 2030, attaining a sustainable level. However, China remains far behind other countries, with high levels of energy sustainability and energy security in the world.

Water, energy, and food insecurity are significant challenges that affect both economies and households, particularly in developing countries. These resources have an effect on households wellbeing, businesses, and all sectors of the economy, making them critical to ensuring household well-being, which is frequently measured by quintile welfare. As a result, there has been a significant increase in interest in securitizing these resources in order to mitigate their negative effects on household's wellbeing This study provides an empirical investigation of the determinants of water, energy, and food (WEF) security and the effect of water, energy, and food security on household well-being in Ghana. This study provides an empirical investigation of the determinants of water, energy, and food (WEF) security and the effect of water, energy, and food security on household well-being in Ghana. The study used a sample of 2,735 households from the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS) Wave 7. We applied an instrumental variable probit, complementary log-log and ordered Probit estimation techniques for analysis. Empirical analysis reveals several important findings. Firstly, factors such as age, credit access, household location, employment status, and livestock ownership positively contribute to household water security, while remittances, water supply management, water bills, and water quantity have negative impacts. Secondly, age, marital status, household size, remittances, and livestock ownership significantly influence household energy security. Thirdly, marital status, household income, credit access, and household size are crucial determinants of household food security, with residence and region of household location exerting negative effects. Additionally, while water and energy security have a relatively lower impact on household well-being, food security emerges as a key driver in promoting household wellbeing. The study recommends that policymakers and stakeholders design and implement robust programs and interventions to sustain households' water, energy, and food supply.

In urban ecosystems, the main problems are drinking water supply, energy supply, drainage, waste disposal, land use change, pollution, mitigation of natural disasters, and protecting the integrity of ecosystems. These problems are being compounded by population explosion including migration, sociocultural upheaval, and climate change. In order to discuss these problems from a hydrologic perspective, this paper first revisits ecology, ecosystems, ecosphere, and biosphere. It then looks at ecosystems in the hierarchy of biological organization. This then leads to stating the sciences that are allied with ecology and ecosystems. The next question that needs to be addressed is the one of sustainability. Defining sustainability is, some aspects of sustainable development and sustainability imperatives are enumerated. With this background in hand, urban ecosystems and their components are formulated. This leads to stating the main urban hydrology problems and challenges. These problems and challenges are being complicated by growing global population, particularly urban population and especially in India and its cities. Emphasizing water as the source of life, food, fiber, and energy, the question of meeting the challenges of water security, energy security, and food supply arises. To that end, water use, including individual, virtual water use, water withdrawals, and water use in different sectors, is discussed. The use of water in energy production is then highlighted. There is a dualism of energy use in India, and this gives rise to India’s energy challenge. Without sustainable energy supply in the long term, development will be impeded, for this is one of the sustainability imperatives. The problem of drinking water which is still plaguing cities in India is then examined. Like energy, it is related to human health and development. These challenges must be met with an integrated approach to water management under the specter of looming climate change. The discussion is concluded with a personal perspective on water, food, and energy security and on development itself.

The increased cost of accessing energy and the effects on economic growth (GDP) across regions is one of grave concern [1]. The Cost implication of energy supply often shapes regional energy policies across the globe. This paper presents an empirical investigation into the relationship between energy generation and economic growth, while also investigating probable threats to sustainable energy supply across regions. Energy generation was found to have some implications for economic growth across regions. It was found that hydro electric, renewable energy and nuclear generation sources were significantly driving growth across regions while coal and gas sources were not. This was particularly true since the cost of fossils was having strong cost implications, for overall energy generation cost in countries in regions due to overdependence on fossils. Generating sources were also found to have strong implications for sustained energy supply (energy security), renewable energy and gas generating sources that had the strongest effects on sustainable energy supply across regions. This was probably true since regions were focusing on new technologies in energy generation process, which are cheaper, cleaner and more sustaining, while still depending on gas plants due to the relative cost implications of maintaining gas plants compared to hydro and nuclear generating plants. The method of estimation used in the study is the seemingly unrelated regression estimation method.

An accurate assessment of food security and its challenges is essential for formulating effective measures and promoting sustainable socioeconomic development. This study develops an evaluation system for China's food security, focusing on four dimensions: food supply, food access, food production stability, and food continuity. The entropy weight extended matter element model is used for quantitative processing, which ensures that the integrity of the information can be guaranteed to a greater extent while reducing the influence of subjective factors, and then, the study evaluates the food security of different functional areas in China, and finally, it diagnoses the main obstacles to food security by using the obstacle degree model. (1) From 2000 to 2020, China's food security level fluctuated, initially declining, and then increasing. The food security level in major production and marketing areas is generally higher, while the primary marketing areas exhibit the lowest security levels. (2) The level of grain yields and the total power of machinery per unit area are the key factors affecting food security; the impact of inputs of agricultural materials (fertilizers and pesticides) on food security has decreased and is constantly stabilizing. In the main marketing area, the per capita food share is significantly lower than in the other functional areas, which has the greatest impact on food security. (3) Analysis of the obstacle factors reveals that the food supply and access security subsystems are crucial for ensuring national, production, and marketing security. From 2000 to 2020, the average obstacle degrees of food supply and food access security at the national level were 46.56% and 21.17%, respectively; for the production and marketing areas, they were 58.47% and 21.45%; and for primary marketing areas, they were 37.69% and 26.59%. In major grain-producing areas, the main obstacles lay within the food supply security and food production stability subsystems, with average obstacle degrees of 53.77% and 15.67%, respectively, from 2000 to 2020. The above results provide a scientific basis for comprehensively improving the level of food security in China, optimizing the structure of food production in each functional area, and formulating regionalized policies for stabilizing and maintaining food production and supply.

This study focuses on the modernisation of the electricity infrastructure in Central Asia, in particular energy efficiency improvements and clean energy development. The starting point of the analysis is the recognition by the Central Asian states that the modernisation of electricity supply depends on the active participation of private – and in particular foreign – investors in these markets. Private capital and technology, know how and operational efficiency is needed to improve the efficiency of the system and finance the investments needed to ensure secure and sustainable energy supply. Taking an investor’s perspective, this study examines the regulatory framework governing the electricity market in Central Asia and questions the extent to which these rules and the ongoing reform initiatives provide a sufficiently strong basis for investments in the modernisation of energy supply. Taking into account the capital intensity and long term payback period of electricity investments, together with the perceived weaknesses of the general investment climate in Central Asia, this study focuses on investment risks and available protection against the occurrence of these risks.

The article examines energy security as a factor in the Russia – European Union crisis-led energy relations at the present stage. It considers conceptual and theoretical aspects of energy security, as well as relevant doctrinal and practical approaches of Russia and the EU to ensuring energy security. The article concludes that the current deep crisis in the Russia–EU energy relations has been caused not only by the parties’ purely political contradictions, but also by their fundamental concerns related to energy security. The European Union, given its official documents, strives for reliable, affordable and sustainable (in terms of both environment and climate) energy supply. It can also seek energy independence by achieving carbon neutrality by mid-century. Consequently, Russia, with its relatively cheap and climate-unfriendly hydrocarbons, and having the image of a politically unreliable energy supplier in the eyes of Brussels (due to a gradual and successful securitization process, started in the mid‑2000s), has actually become an obstacle to ensuring the EU’s energy security. Russia considers its energy security in the sense of security of energy demand, as well as security of energy supply and energy independence. Therefore, it is trying to ensure that its energy industry can reliably, efficiently, independently and environmentally friendly provide the country, its economy and citizens with affordable energy supplies, as well as successfully perform its export functions in current international conditions. The radical and politicized actions aimed at undermining the Russian energy industry and its export potential, undertaken by the European Union during the crisis in Ukraine and especially after February 2022, have come into absolute contradiction with the Russian vision of energy security. The author admits that the restoration of the destroyed Russia–EU energy ties requires not only political “reconciliation” of the parties, but also the removal of substantial risks in the field of energy security that Moscow and Brussels associate with each other.

Coal Liquefaction, Shenhua Group, and China’s Energy Security

The present study examined the relationship between finance, government revenue, institutional quality and sustainable energy supply in West Africa countries over annual frequency period from 2012 to 2020. To achieve the outlined nexus between study variables, the present study leverages on a battery of panel analysis for robust inferences. The econometric estimators employed are panel random effect regression, generalized method of moment technique. Furthermore, panel Granger causality test is utilized to analyze the direction of flow among the variables for the study. Empirical results revealed that financial development is a significant determinant of energy supply in West Africa countries while a negligible effect was reported for institutional quality and sustainable energy supply. Thus, the present study concludes that finance from financial sector is important in ensuring sufficient energy supply. To this end, this study therefore, recommends that incentives should be given to financial institutions that fund energy generation and transmission as financial development is seen to be significant on energy supply.

Natural gas as a bridge to sustainability: Infrastructure expansion regarding energy security and system transition

Water, food, energy, and quality of life go hand in hand. The food we eat, the house we live in, the transports we use, and the things we cannot do without 24/7/365 determine our quality of life and require sustainable and steady supplies of water, food, and energy. Exponential growth in population and the fundamental right to have basic food and standards of living require increasing amounts of water and energy. The quantity of available freshwater and energy sources that directly affect the cost of production (irrigation and energy) and the transportation (energy) of food are diminishing. In addition, there is increased water pollution due to industrial uses of water. The direct use of such water for human consumption as well as irrigation for food production is prohibitive and requires technological solutions. Securing sustainable water, food, and energy supplies are more important challenges today for scientists and engineers than ever before. With the above in mind, Professors Mujtaba and Elbashir organized workshops in Qatar and in India in 2015. The Qatar workshop was on energy and water security and was coordinated by Professors Mujtaba and Elbashir and funded by the British Council (UK) and Texas A&M University (USA). Thirteen participants from the UK and 15 from Qatar (academics and industrialists) presented stimulating and state-of-the-art research and knowledge transfer ideas in energy and water over 3 days. The Indian workshop was on water, food, and energy nexus and was coordinated by professors Mujtaba and Srinivasan and funded by the Royal Society (UK) and the Department of Science and Technology (India). Three participants from the UK and 15 from India (academics and industrialists) presented stimulating and state-of-the-art research and knowledge transfer ideas in water, food, and energy over 3 days. A total of 40 presentations were made and both events received a great deal of national press coverage. The developments in energy-efficient water production, management, wastewater treatment, and energy-efficient processes for food and essential commodities were widely discussed at these workshops. This book presents those technical discussions for wider public benefit around the globe. The book has 37 contributions (most from the two workshops mentioned earlier) and is divided into four sections: • Section I: Water • Section II: Food • Section III: Energy • Section IV: Sustainable Future Section I includes 10 contributions on water desalination, water management, and wastewater treatment. Water desalination covers the state of the art in mode-based research in desalination together with the global water–energy challenge in desalination and forward osmosis-based desalination for agricultural irrigation. Water management covers topics on sustainable water management in industrial cities, water network synthesis, and water quality monitoring. Wastewater treatment includes four contributions on the removal of endocrine, water conservation, life cycle assessment into the synthesis of wastewater treatment plants, and appropriate technologies for supplying safe drinking water. Section II includes five contributions on food. The contributions cover advances in cereal processing, clean technology for sustainable food security, bioenergy in food production, water and energy consumption in food processing, and a mathematical model for food cooking undergoing phase changes. Section III includes 16 contributions on fossil fuel, biofuel, synthetic fuel, and renewable energy, and carbon capture. Fossil fuel includes two contributions on energy-efficient crude oil transport and the process industry economics of crude oil and petroleum derivatives. Biofuel has two contributions: biodiesel production from renewable sources and synthesis of biodiesel from used cooking oil. Synthetic fuel and renewable energy includes five contributions on gas-to-liquid (GTL)-derived synthetic fuel, the role of alternative aviation fuel, a modeling approach for the GTL Fischer–Tropsch reactor and carbon footprint, a distributed renewable energy system and management, and demand for and generation of a smart grid. Carbon capture contains seven contributions on the rotating packed bed for carbon capture, integration of natural gas combined cycle power generation and chemical absorption based carbon capture, postcombustion carbon capture, integration of supercritical coal-fired power plant and carbon capture, experimental and theoretical modeling of carbon capture and sequestration chain, and the performance of organic polymers for carbon capture. Section IV includes six contributions on a sustainable future. The topics cover the role of molecular thermodynamics in developing processes and products for a sustainable future, green engineering in process systems, the fundamental aspect of petrochemical water splitting, petrochemical approaches to solar hydrogen generation, a design and operation strategy of energy-efficient process, and the sustainability of process, supply chain, and enterprise.

Hyperarid, arid, semiarid, and dry subhumid areas cover approximately 41% of the global land area. The human population in drylands, currently estimated at 2.7 billion, faces limited access to sufficient, affordable, and nutritious food. We discuss the interlinkages among water security, environmental security, energy security, economic security, health security, and food security governance, and how they affect food security in drylands. Reliable and adequate water supply, and the prevention of water contamination, increase the potential for ample food, fodder, and fiber production. Protecting woodlands and rangelands increases food security by buffering the slow onset effects of climate change, including biodiversity loss, desertification, salinization, and land degradation. The protection of natural lands is expected to decrease environmental contamination, and simultaneously, reduce the transfer of diseases from wildlife to humans. Biofuel production and hydroelectric power plants increase energy security but generate land-use conflicts, deforestation, and ecosystem degradation. Economic security generally positively correlates with food security. However, economic growth often degrades the environment, changes tenure rights over natural resources, and stimulates migration to urban areas, resulting in lower food and health security. Moreover, civil unrest, political instability, and armed conflicts disrupt local economies in drylands. Maintaining food security is crucial for health security; conversely, malnourished populations and unresponsive health systems decrease economic security, and adversely affect environmental, energy, and food security. Climate change is expected to deteriorate health security by spreading vector-borne diseases. Effective governance and timely interventions can substantially shorten periods of food insecurity, lower their intensities, and accelerate recovery from inevitable crises, and are therefore crucial in preventing humanitarian crises. Since global drylands population will nearly double by 2050, and since drylands are among the most susceptible areas to climate change, integrated multi-hazard approaches to food security are needed.

Facing Global Environmental Change

Chapter 5 - Overcoming the energy security challenges in developing countries