Follow-up of health-related physical fitness elements in mild intellectual disability for three years: a sex comparison.

Human health is highly dependent on the condition of health-related physical fitness and particularly body composition. Adolescence is unique in this regard, especially when the adolescents are mentally retarded, about whom information on physical fitness is limited. Thus, the objective of this paper was to study the components of health-related physical fitness with emphasis on body composition and weight gain and loss in mentally retarded students of Roodbar. Statistical sample included 91 mentally retarded male students with mean age of 13.44±1.56, mean height of 167±6.97, and mean IQ of 68.7±7.8. Physical fitness components were assessed using modified Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT) including cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition (by calculation of body mass index). The results indicated that in terms of body mass index, 40% of participants were underweight, 10% were overweight, and 10% were obese. In addition, body fat percentage was high in 11.9% of subjects and very high in 13% of them. The mean aerobic power of mentally retarded boys aged 12-14 was measured 31.5% (ml/kg/min), indicating 25% and 35% lower physical fitness, respectively, compared to their normal peers and the reference values. The present study revealed that a significant proportion of mentally retarded adolescents in Roodbar are suffering from either underweight or overweight. Moreover, their physical fitness in all components is not desirable compared to their normal peers.

PURPOSE: The purposes of this study were: (1) to evaluate familial aggregation in heterogeneity levels of physical fitness, and (2) to quantify the magnitude of genetic and environmental effects in different components of the Fitnessgram health-related physical fitness. METHODS: The sample comprises 231 twin pairs from different regions of Portugal of both zygosity (93 Monozygotic, and 138 Dizygotic) and was divided in two groups according to their age: group 1 (G1), from 5 to 11 years; group 2 (G2) from 12 to 19 years. Zygosity was assessed with 16 random DNA microsattelies using PCR amplification techniques. Physical fitness was evaluated with the Fitnessgram test battery, which included curl-ups (CU), push-ups (PU), trunk-lift (TL), one-mile run-walk (1M), and body mass index (BMI). Data analysis was done in SPSS 15, and SYSTAT 11. ANOVA models were used to estimate intraclass correlations (t) to compute heritability estimates (h2). RESULTS: Intra pair differences showed remarkable familial aggregation, because intraclass correlations were systematically greater in MZ twins as compared to DZ twins, showing a smaller intra-pair difference in MZ twins. In all fitness components, all t values in MZ in both groups varied from 0.72 to 0.90, whereas in DZ varied from 0.43 to 0.55. h2 estimates ranged from 0.75 (CU), 0.53 (PU), 0.63 (TL), 0.77 (1M) to 0.84 (BMI) in G1, and from 0.76 (CU), 0.59 (PU), 0.68 (TL), 0.65 (1M) to 0.81 (BMI) G2 showing very similar values in the two age groups. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the idea of familial aggregation in health-related physical fitness among twin pairs, and the importance of genetic factors in explaining interindividual differences. Genetic factors consistently explain from 50 to 80 % of the total variation. This calls for a more precise understanding of physical fitness levels of children and adolescents, the need to implement differential physical activity and sports programs to youth to meet the variation of their potential for change, as well as a careful interpretation of their response to such programs at the population level.

Excess body fat and low physical fitness negatively impact health. Because the percentage of children who are overweight or obese continues to rise, understanding how excess adiposity is related to other components of health-related physical fitness in adolescents is important. PURPOSE: To determine if percentage of body fat varied among adolescents who achieved 1, 2, 3, or 4 Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) classifications on tests of muscular fitness, flexibility, and aerobic capacity on the Fitnessgram. METHODS: The curl-up, the modified pull-up, the back-saver sit and reach, and the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) from the Fitnessgram test battery were completed by 250 7th-12th grade students (145 males, 105 females). Percent body fat was determined from triceps and calf skinfolds. Students were classified according to the number of HFZs achieved based on Fitnessgram criteria. RESULTS: Youth who achieved 1 HFZ had a higher percentage of body fat (32.2%, p < .05) than youth who achieved 2 (26.3%), 3 (22.2%), and 4 (19.8%) HFZs (p < .001). Adolescents who attained 2 HFZs had greater adiposity compared to adolescents who attained 3 (p < .05) and 4 (p < .001) HFZs. With respect to sex differences, boys who achieved 1 (28.8%) and 2 (25.2%) HFZs had more body fat than did boys who achieved 3 (18.9%) and 4 (15.1%) HFZs (p < .01). Girls achieving 1 (39.0%) HFZ had a higher percentage of body fat than girls achieving 2 (29.0%), 3 (27.1%), and 4 (23.8%) HFZs (p < .01). Girls who met the criteria for 2 HFZs also had more body fat than girls who met the criteria for 4 HFZs (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, adolescents with a higher percentage of body fat did not reach as many HFZ classifications as those with lower percentages of body fat. This relationship was consistent for the full sample, as well as for boys and girls. These findings support the importance of monitoring body fat levels in adolescence and may facilitate the development of programs targeting childhood obesity as a means of improving health-related physical fitness.

Motor competence has been shown to predict health-related physical fitness (HRPF) components in youth, but there is indeterminate evidence for the reverse path. Even less is known about the specific relationship between motor competence and flexibility. Our aims in this study were to analyze the relationship between flexibility and motor competence among adolescents; and, secondarily, to examine the relationships between motor competence and other HRPF components (body composition and musculoskeletal fitness). We conducted a longitudinal study (14-months follow-up) with two measurement points of 128 participants (55.5% girls; 45% boys) aged 12-13 years at baseline. We assessed HRPF components at the first time point and determined motor competence at the second time point. We assessed HRPF in terms of body composition (body fat percentage), musculoskeletal fitness (sit-up test), and flexibility (sit and reach). We determined motor competence using the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK). We employed multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) to examine the effect of HRPF on motor competence through three models, in which each HRPF component was considered an independent variable. Sex, age, physical activity, and body mass index (BMI) z-scores were considered confounders. In our crude models all HRPF components significantly affected motor competence. In adjusted models, flexibility (p = .002) and body composition (p < .001) significantly affected motor competence. Overall, these results supported the assumptions that HRPF components are related to motor competence in adolescence, and that flexibility can affect motor competence in young people.

Health-related criterion-referenced physical fitness has developed into an important domain for all youngsters in American schools. Although considered important for youngsters with or without disabilities, much less attention has been given to measuring and assessing health-related physical fitness of youngsters with disabilities. The Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT) was developed as a healthrelated criterion- referenced test of fitness as a part of a federal grant entitled Project Target: Criterion-Referenced Physical Fitness Standards for Adolescents with Disabilities. This special issue of the Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) presents the conceptual framework for the BPFT and the technical information used as a basis for the selection of test items and standards associated with the test. Technical information is presented in separate articles covering aerobic functioning, body composition, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility/range of motion. This first article introduces the reader to health-related fitness testing, Project Target, the BPFT, the general organization of information in this issue, and key contributors to Project Target and the development of the BPFT.

Physical inactivity among children is a growing public health concern, particularly in Mediterranean countries, where lifestyle changes have contributed to declining physical fitness levels. Structured school-based interventions have shown promise in improving children's health-related physical fitness (HRF), but cross-cultural differences in intervention effectiveness remain understudied. This study, conducted within the DELICIOUS project, evaluates the impact of a standardized physical activity (PA) intervention on HRF components among children (8-10 years) and early adolescents (11-14 years) from five Mediterranean countries: Egypt, Italy, Lebanon, Portugal, and Spain. A total of 937 participants aged 8-14 years took part in a six-month school-based PA program designed to enhance speed, agility, muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance, and coordination. Physical fitness was assessed using the International Physical Performance Test Profile (IPPTP) before and after the intervention. A three-way repeated measures ANOVA (Time × Age × Country) assessed intervention effects on anthropometric and fitness variables, while a two-way ANOVA (Age × Country) examined the percentage changes in these HRF across age groups and countries. Significant improvements were observed across multiple health-related fitness components, particularly in speed, lower-body power, coordination, muscular endurance, and cardiovascular endurance. Early adolescents (11-14 years) generally showed greater gains than younger children (8-10 years). The magnitude of improvement in fitness outcomes varied by country. Lebanon and Portugal recorded the most substantial gains in sprint, strength, and endurance. Spain and Italy showed relatively smaller improvements, especially among younger participants, whereas Egyptian students demonstrated notable gains in sprint performance and endurance, particularly among early adolescents, along with the most significant BMI reduction observed in the study. BMI remained stable across participants, suggesting that fitness improvements were achieved alongside healthy growth, without adverse changes in body composition. A structured PA intervention can effectively improve HRF in children across Mediterranean countries, though outcomes vary by age and cultural context. These findings highlight the need for tailored, school-based PA programs that consider baseline fitness levels and regional factors. Implementing such interventions could play a crucial role in addressing physical inactivity and fostering long-term health benefits in children.

Introduction The purpose of our study was to determine the passing rates on health-related physical fitness tests of young goalball players. More specifically, we compared their passing rates according to gender and visual impairment classification. Methods Participants included 40 Brazilian goalball players with visual impairments (20 female [B1 = 7, B2 = 8, B3 = 5]; 20 male [B1 = 6, B2 = 4, B3 = 10]), with a mean age 17.3 (SD = 1.6). The Brockport Physical Fitness Test, a health-related, criterion-referenced protocol, was employed to evaluate percentage of body fat, shoulder stretch, back-saver sit and reach, trunk lift, curl-ups, push-ups, and the one-mile run or walk. Results A significant difference was found in passing rates between genders only in the one-mile run or walk. More than half the participants were able to pass in at least four out of the seven tests. No significant differences were found between groups regarding the proportion of athletes who reached the protocol standards. Discussion Irrespective of gender or visual impairment classification, the participants of this study had high passing rates on most tests. Nonetheless, athletes had low passing rates on specific areas (cardiovascular and muscular strength), which need to be acknowledged. Future studies with a bigger sample could seek to determine the effects of specific training regimens not only on youths, but also on adult groups. Implications for practitioners As a Paralympic sport likely to be of interest to visually impaired children and adolescents, goalball seems to be a feasible game to support the achievement of ideal physical activity levels in this population, leading to higher levels of health-related physical fitness.

The main purpose of this study was to track the performance and health-related physical fitness of girls from Brazil's Cariri region. In the “Healthy Growth in Cariri Study”, 294 girls from public and private schools were divided into four age cohorts – 8, 10, 12, and 14 years – and followed for three consecutive years, with an assessment every 6 months. Shuttle run, hand grip, standing long jump, trunk lift, curl-up, 12-min run, and fatness were used to rate physical fitness performance and health-related components on each of six occasions. Tracking was done in a stepwise manner, using auto-correlation, by modelling the individual history of change in performance of each girl, and using Foulkes and Davies’ γ-coefficient. SPSS 18.0 and TIMEPATH were used for data analysis. Auto-correlations evidenced low-to-moderate values in almost all components of performance and health-related physical fitness. Intra-individual tracking analysis showed large variation in all fitness components as a result of a wide spread in individual history of change in fitness performance. Population estimates of γ were low in all tests. Our results show low-to-moderate tracking of physical fitness components of girls. A wide range of intra-individual and inter-variability in fitness development was observed.

AimPhysical activity (PA) and physical fitness (PF) are known to be closely connected. Various environmental and biological constraints have been shown to influence children’s PA with parents being among strong determinants of their children’s PA behaviour. However, little is known about parental influence on PF in children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the influence of parental health-related behaviours and attitudes on PF in boys and girls.Subjects and methodsBaseline data of 1,875 primary school children (7.1 ± 0.6 years; 50 % male) were included in the analyses. Lateral jumping performance was used as a proxy for whole-body coordination and the 6-min run for cardiovascular fitness. Parental health-related behaviours, attitudes and sociodemographic variables were assessed via questionnaire. Regression analyses, adjusting for age and BMI, were performed separately for boys and girls.ResultsThe final models of the regression analyses showed that children’s age and BMI are significantly related to PF. Mothers’ self-efficacy to encourage their children to be active is significantly associated with boys’ coordination and cardiovascular fitness and girls’ coordination. Mothers’ PA affects PF in boys, not in girls. Maternal smoking has a significantly negative effect on both boys’ and girls’ cardiovascular fitness.ConclusionThis study shows that parental health-related behaviours and self-efficacy to encourage their children to be active affect children’s PF. Influencing factors, however, differ in girls and boys, and mothers seem especially influential.

Background Being underweight, overweight, or obese has a negative impact on health outcomes in adulthood. Focusing on body mass index (BMI) since childhood may improve the quality of life and well-being of an individual in future. Objective The aim of this study was to find the correlation of low, normal, and high BMI with health-related physical fitness components of the FITNESSGRAM test battery in school-going children of North and South Mangaluru. Materials and Methods The study analyzed 166 respondents aged 5 to 10 years from seven Dakshina Kannada Zilla Panchayat schools in Mangaluru city. The children were divided into three groups (low, normal, and high BMI) based on their World Health Organization (WHO) growth chart standards, and they were assessed for health-related physical fitness using the FITNESSGRAM test battery. Results There was a strong positive correlation of normal, low, and high BMI with FITNESSGRAM tests such as skinfold measurements of triceps (r = 0.903, 0.889, and 0.913). and calf (r = 0.881, 0.889, and 0.900), curl-up (r = 0.787, 0.776, and 0.881), and 90-degree pushup (r = 0.816, 0.769, and 0.858). The progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) had a weak positive correlation with normal BMI (r = 0.122), moderate positive with low BMI (r = 0.301), and moderate negative with high BMI (r = −0.584), while the trunk lift test had a moderate positive correlation with normal, low, and high BMI (r = 0.618, 0.640, and 0.641). Conclusion The study concludes that there is a positive correlation between BMI and health-related physical fitness components of FITNESSGRAM in school-going children of North and South Mangaluru.

Health-related physical fitness indicators and clustered cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescents: A longitudinal study

ObjectiveTo examine whether health-related physical fitness mediates the association between fundamental motor skills (FMS) and social functioning in school-age children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).MethodsA total of 117 school-age children with ASD were recruited from special education schools. FMS were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development–3 (TGMD-3). Social functioning was evaluated using the Social Responsiveness Scale–2 (SRS-2), with higher scores indicating greater social impairment. Health-related physical fitness was assessed via body mass index, flexibility (sit-and-reach), muscular strength (handgrip), muscular power (standing long jump), balance (one-leg stance), and vital capacity. Pearson correlation analyses and structural equation modeling with bias-corrected bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) were conducted to test mediation effects.ResultsHigher FMS scores were associated with lower SRS-2 scores, indicating better social functioning (r = −0.312, p < 0.001). Several health-related physical fitness components, particularly handgrip strength and flexibility, were significantly associated with both FMS and social functioning. Structural equation modeling demonstrated a full mediation effect, whereby health-related physical fitness significantly transmitted the association between FMS and social functioning (indirect effect B = −2.111, 95% CI [−3.576, −1.189]), while the direct effect was not significant (B = −0.095, 95% CI [−1.193, 1.274]). Model fit indices indicated an excellent fit.ConclusionHealth-related physical fitness, especially muscular strength and flexibility, appears to be a key mechanism linking motor skill proficiency to social functioning in children with ASD. Interventions that integrate strength and mobility training with motor-skill practice may enhance social outcomes in this population.

BackgroundThis study examined associations between students’ physical fitness and physical activity (PA), as well as what specific physical fitness components were more significant correlates to being physically active in different settings for boys and girls.MethodsA total of 265 fifth-grade students with an average age of 11 voluntarily participated in this study. The students’ physical fitness was assessed using four FitnessGram tests, including Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), curl-up, push-up, and trunk lift tests. The students’ daily PA was assessed in various settings using a daily PA log for 7 days. Data was analyzed with descriptive statistics, univariate analyses, and multiple R-squared liner regression methods.ResultsPerformance on the four physical fitness tests was significantly associated with the PA minutes spent in physical education (PE) class and recess for the total sample and for girls, but not for boys. Performance on the four fitness tests was significantly linked to participation in sports/dances outside school and the total weekly PA minutes for the total sample, boys, and girls. Further, boys and girls who were the most physically fit spent significantly more time engaging in sports/dances and had greater total weekly PA than boys and girls who were not physically fit. In addition, the physically fit girls were more physically active in recess than girls who were not physically fit.ConclusionsOverall, students’ performance on the four physical fitness tests was significantly associated with them being physically active during PE and in recess and engaging in sports/dances, as well as with their total weekly PA minutes, but not with their participation in non-organized physical play outside school.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03015337, registered date: 1/09/2017, as “retrospectively registered”

Manipulative skill competency and health-related physical fitness in elementary school students

Physically active students are more likely to be fit and learn better in school than sedentary ones. For school-aged children, it is unclear whether physical fitness level is an important determinant for student’s activity afterschool. This study examined the association between health-related physical fitness test performance and afterschool physical activity during weekdays. Participants (n = 97, 11–13 years old) completed health-related fitness tests. They wore Actigraph GT3X accelerometers for five consecutive days, recording physical activity participation during after school hours. Descriptive statistics for both afterschool physical activity and health-related fitness were summarized. Regression analyses were conducted to determine the association between variables. Participants spent most of their afterschool hours participating in sedentary behaviors (274.27 ± 66.89 min) and light physical activity (73.68 ± 51.66 min), and only 11.35 ± 16.92 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), accumulating approximately 2058.52 ± 1690.56 steps each day afterschool. The regression model explained 22.8% of the variance in afterschool MVPA, and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) scores were the only statistically significant predictor (β = 0.47, p &lt; 0.01). Fit students do tend to exercise more after school. Promoting physical fitness in school is an important factor for students’ afterschool physical activity participation during weekdays.