Abstract
The seasonal variations of dissolved and bioavailable copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were studied in two recreational marinas in Sweden and Finland. The time series from the two marinas were characterized by rising concentrations during the spring boat launching, elevated concentrations all through the peak boating season, and decreasing concentrations in autumn when boats were retrieved for winter storage. This pattern shows a clear link between Cu and Zn concentrations and boating activity, with antifouling paints as the principal source. The leaching from antifouling paints was also found to significantly alter the speciation of dissolved Cu and Zn in marina waters, with an increase of the proportion of metals that may be considered bioavailable. This change in speciation, which occurred without any change in dissolved organic carbon (DOC), further increases the environmental risk posed by antifouling paints. In the Swedish marina, dissolved Cu and Zn exceed both Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) and Predicted No Effect Concentrations (PNEC), indicating that the current Swedish risk assessment (RA) of antifouling paints is failing to adequately protect the marine environment. An evaluation of the RA performance showed the underlying cause to be an underestimation of the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) by factors of 2 and 5 for Cu and Zn, respectively. For both metals, the use of inaccurate release rates for the PEC derivation was found to be either mainly (Cu) or partly (Zn) responsible for the underestimation. For Zn, the largest source of error seems to be the use of an inappropriate partitioning coefficient (KD) in the model. To ensure that the use of antifouling coatings does not adversely impact the sensitive Baltic Sea, it is thus recommended that the KD value for Zn is revised and that representative release rates are used in the RA procedure.
Highlights
The Baltic Sea, classified as a Sensitive Sea Area in 2001 by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), has specific ecological characteristics resulting in a limited but unique species diversity (Kachel 2008)
Statistical testing revealed no significant differences in metal concentration between the different sampling points (A, B, C, or D) within either of the marinas
As Bullandö Marina was more frequently sampled than Porta Marina, the change in concentration over the whole boating season can be observed with a higher temporal resolution
Summary
The Baltic Sea, classified as a Sensitive Sea Area in 2001 by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), has specific ecological characteristics resulting in a limited but unique species diversity (Kachel 2008) This semienclosed sea is subject to multiple stressors such as eutrophication, overfishing, ocean acidification, and climate change, making its management both an intricate and vital issue (Jutterström et al 2014; Elmgren et al 2015). In the European Union (EU), there are at present 14 active substances approved for use in antifouling products under the Biocidal Products Regulation (BPR) (European Parliament and Council 2012), and both the choice and leaching rate of the biocide(s) will determine a paint’s efficacy in preventing fouling
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