Fixing Climate Change: Accounting Disclosure Remedies

Carbon emission has negative externalities, which will cause severe natural and social problems. In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to carbon emission reduction issue both in academic and application fields. This paper aims to explore the impact of punitive carbon tax and incentive carbon emission reduction subsidy on economy and environment through the dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) framework. The results show that both carbon tax and carbon emission reduction subsidy policies can help to reduce carbon emissions and to improve environment quality. In addition, carbon emission reduction subsidy has a positive impact on economy, while carbon tax has the opposite impact. It follows that the incentive carbon emission reduction policy is more conducive to the coordinated development of economy and environment. This research can be a guideline for the government to formulate carbon emission abatement policies from the perspective of coordinated development.

Southeast Asia is rich in tropical forests and biodiversity but rapid deforestation and forest degradation have accelerated climate change and threatened sustainable development in the region. Carbon emission reductions through reducing deforestation and forest degradation, forest conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+) have been a focal topic of the climate change mitigation since the Bali in 2007. However, only a handful of studies exist so far on this important issue that are suitable to inform the debate with estimates of carbon stocks and emission reductions or removals as a result of REDD+. Our study attempts to analyze the potential emission reductions and removals for a 35-year period under the REDD+ scheme. We start by developing land use change and forest harvesting models that are used to estimate carbon stock changes in natural forests and forest plantations in Southeast Asia. Carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation of natural forests were 1865.1, 1611.4, and 1300.4 TgCO2 year-1, respectively. With a hypothetical carbon project of 35 years beginning from 2015, carbon emission reductions were estimated at 817.6 TgCO2 year-1, of which about 10% was from reducing forest degradation. Carbon removals due to increase of forest plantations were 76.3 TgCO2 year-1 but the removals could be much higher if there is a new definition on the eligibility of forest plantations. Summing up together, about 893.9 TgCO2 of carbon credits could be achieved from implementing carbon project in Southeast Asia or about US $6.6 billion annually between 2015 and 2050 if carbon price in 2012 is used. In addition to reducing emissions, there are other benefits from carbon project implementation. This study suggests that REDD+ has great potential for reducing carbon emissions and enhancing carbon stocks in the forests. Without financial incentives, carbon project would not happen and therefore climate change will continue to threaten future development.

Faced with increasingly strict carbon emission control, high-emission enterprises need scientific and rational management systems and methods to strengthen carbon emission reduction management. Among the many management systems and methods, the carbon budget has become an effective emission reduction management tool, allowing the planning of carbon emissions and emission reduction activities and rational arrangement of economic inputs. However, judging from the research status and business practices in China and abroad, there is no general carbon budget system to guide the development of carbon emission and emission reduction activities. Based on this background, this paper first attempts to construct an enterprise carbon budget system comprising four sub-budgets: carbon emission, carbon emission reduction and cost, carbon emission rights trading, and carbon emission reduction net profit/loss. It draws on the idea of interactive control to consider the impact of changes in carbon prices, energy prices, and policy guidelines on carbon emission reductions and losses. A carbon budget management system based on interactive control is then constructed and applied to China National Aviation Holding Air China Group (AC Aviation). The research results show that the carbon budget system based on interactive control can dynamically adjust carbon emission reduction behavior based on changes in carbon and energy prices to make carbon budgeting a more viable carbon reduction tool and institutional arrangement.

The Hu-Bao-O-Yu urban agglomeration is an important energy exporting and high-end chemical base in China, and is an important source of carbon emissions in China. The early achievement of peak carbon emissions in this region is particularly crucial to achieving the national carbon emission reduction targets. However, there is a lack of multi-factor system dynamics analysis of resource-dependent urban agglomerations in Northwest China, as most studies have focused on single or static aspects of developed urban agglomerations. This paper analyses the relationship between carbon emissions and their influencing factors, constructs a carbon emission system dynamics model for the Hu-Bao-O-Yu urban agglomeration, and sets up different single regulation and comprehensive regulation scenarios to simulate and predict the carbon peak time, peak value, and emission reduction potential of each city and urban agglomeration under different scenarios. The results show that: (1) Hohhot and Baotou are expected to reach peak carbon by 2033 and 2031 respectively, under the baseline scenario, while other regions and the urban agglomeration will not be able to reach peak carbon by 2035. (2) Under single regulation scenarios, the effect of factors other than the energy consumption varies across cities, but the energy consumption and environmental protection input are the main factors affecting carbon emissions in the urban agglomeration. (3) A combination of the economic growth, industrial structure, energy policy, environmental protection, and technology investment is the best measure to achieve carbon peaking and enhance the carbon emission reduction in each region as soon as possible. In the future, we need to coordinate the economic development, energy structure optimisation and transformation, low-carbon transformation of industry, strengthen research on carbon sequestration technology, and further increase the investment in environmental protection to make the Hu-Bao-O-Yu urban agglomeration a resource-saving urban agglomeration with an optimal emission reduction.

The contradiction between China's economic development and the reduction of carbon emission is increasingly deepening along with the complex carbon emission transfer. Optimizing provincial-level carbon emission transfer in China is important for facilitating economic development and carbon emission reduction. Under these dual constraints, this study uses the slacks-based measure, marginal abatement cost, and geographically and temporally weighted regression models to measure the economic and carbon emission reduction effects and the carbon emission reduction baseline. Then, the optimization strategy and path of provincial carbon emission transfer network structure are proposed to provide policy support for achieving the dual goals of economic development and carbon emission reduction in China. This article draws the following important research conclusions. First, under the three economic development scenarios, provinces in the eastern coastal developed regions are capable of completing the expected carbon emission reduction, whereas the underdeveloped provinces in the central and northern regions are not. Second, from the perspective of the economic effect of carbon emission transfer, carbon emission transfer from most provinces promotes economic development, whereas carbon emission transfer from a few economically underdeveloped provinces hinders economic development. Third, from the perspective of the carbon emission reduction impact of carbon emission transfer, carbon emission transfer in the northeast region has a negative impact on carbon emission reduction, and carbon emission transfer in developed regions also has a negative impact on carbon emission reduction. Fourth, the optimization of the carbon emission transfer can be divided into four categories.

Has China achieved synergistic reduction of carbon emissions and air pollution? Evidence from 283 Chinese cities

Climate change, economics and hope: a comment on Brennan

Climate change is a pressing global issue that is rapidly requiring a global response under international law. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was created by the UN to unite states in coordinating efforts to lower greenhouse gas emissions while continuing to develop in a more sustainable way. The Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement were two succeeding efforts under the UNFCCC to decrease emissions and prepare adaptations for the effects of climate change. The Kyoto Protocol required mandatory reduction in carbon emissions by industrialised developed states, and it inevitably collapsed. The Paris Agreement required voluntary reduction of carbon emissions by all member states. In this paper, we look at the evolution of the international climate change legal regime, from the UNFCCC adaptation at Rio de Janeiro, to the failed Kyoto Protocol and the innovation of the Paris Agreement. In particular, we look at the implementation efforts by the EU and China of the Paris Agreement, as two of the major carbon emitters on the planet who are still parties to the agreement. Although both China and the EU set lofty goals in accordance with the Paris Agreement requirements, neither state’s plan is adequate to deal with global warming in the long run. We argue that the greatest innovation of the Paris Agreement is in climate change related information gathering, sharing, and reporting. The rapidly deteriorating condition of the global climate makes accurate information on national carbon emission and carbon reduction efforts, essential for long-term prediction and planning. Therefore, in the fight against global warming, timely and reliable information on carbon emissions and how national governments are dealing with that have become more valuable than just complying with global targets.

A scientific carbon accounting system can help enterprises reduce carbon emissions. This study took an enterprise in the Yangtze River basin as a case study. The accounting classification of carbon emissions in the life cycle of lime production was assessed, and the composition of the sources of carbon emission was analyzed, covering mining explosives, fuel (diesel, coal), electricity and high-temperature limestone decomposition. Using the IPCC emission factor method, a carbon life cycle emission accounting model for lime production was established. We determined that the carbon dioxide equivalent from producing one ton of quicklime ranged from 1096.68 kg CO2 equiv. to 1176.96 kg CO2 equiv. from 2019 to 2021 in the studied case. The decomposition of limestone at a high temperature was the largest carbon emission source, accounting for 64% of the total carbon emission. Coal combustion was the second major source of carbon emissions, accounting for 31% of total carbon emissions. Based upon the main sources of carbon emission for lime production, carbon emission reduction should focus on CO2 capture technology and fuel optimization. Based on the error transfer method, we calculated that the overall uncertainty of the life cycle carbon emissions of quicklime from 2019 to 2021 are 2.13%, 2.07% and 2.09%, respectively. Using our analysis of carbon emissions, the carbon emission factor of producing one unit of quicklime in the lime enterprise in the Yangtze River basin was determined. Furthermore, this research into carbon emission reduction for lime production can provide a point of reference for the promotion of carbon neutrality in the same industry.

Spatial effects and heterogeneity analysis of the impact of environmental taxes on carbon emissions in China

Currently, scientifically and reasonably specifying carbon emission reduction measures in the context of "double carbon" has become a common concern worldwide. China's administrative divisions have a notable impact on the formulation and implementation of relevant policies. Therefore the carbon emissions must be calculated accurately under China's administrative divisions at different scales. The spatiotemporal change characteristics of absorption and carbon emissions can provide scientific basis for the formulation of reasonable and differentiated carbon emission reduction policies in different administrative regions in China. To this end, this study used multi-source data such as remote sensing and statistics and integrated ecological models, statistics, and GIS space analysis and other methods to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamic change characteristics of carbon emissions and carbon absorption at different administrative scales （provinces, cities, and counties） in China. The results showed that： ① The total carbon absorption of vegetation in China continued to increase from 2000 to 2021 and the average value gradually increased. Differences were observed in spatiotemporal changes in carbon emissions at different administrative scales. The spatiotemporal changes at smaller scales were more evident. Carbon emissions showed obvious spatial differences of "high in the north and low in the south, high in the east and low in the west." ② The spatiotemporal distribution of CPI at the administrative scale was similar to that of carbon emissions and the overall trend was increasing annually. The pressure of carbon emissions on carbon absorption gradually weakened from the east to the central and western regions. ③ Spatiotemporal hotspot analysis showed that the overall spatial distribution of cold and hot spots in China's carbon absorption was as follows： In the spatial pattern of "hot in the east and cold in the west," the spatial distribution of cold and hot spots of carbon emissions showed agglomeration characteristics. The provincial scale was primarily oscillating hotspot whereas municipal and county scales were majorly continuous hot spots. Further results revealed that： ① Carbon absorption in different regions and periods in China showed significant variability, especially in the central and eastern regions. The possibility of offsetting carbon emissions by increasing carbon absorption remains. ② At the same scale, administrative regions （such as different provinces） and lower-level administrative regions at another scale （such as different cities in the same province） showed varying degrees of variability in carbon absorption and carbon emissions. Therefore, taking provincial administrative regions as an example for subsequent formulation considering carbon trading, emission reduction, and other policies, we should first consider the coordination of emissions between different cities in the province and then consider the coordination between provinces, which is expected to better promote the implementation of relevant policies.

The emission of greenhouse gases poses enormous pressure on current carbon emissions and carbon reduction. Accurate quantification of carbon emissions from coal-fired power plants is of great significance for achieving the dual carbon goal. To enable enterprises to better understand their carbon emissions, this study constructs a carbon emission model and carbon emission data accounting model for coal-fired power plants. Case data calculations and a carbon emission reduction analysis were conducted. The experiment showcases that the carbon sensitivity of the inner side of the boiler under control conditions is higher than that of the operating parameters controlled on the inner side of the steam turbine, with a maximum total value of 16.67 g/MJ; the annual average low calorific value of coal remains between 16,000 kJ/kg; the activity level of coal remains between 30,000 TJ; and the oxidation probability of coal char during combustion fluctuates, with a maximum of 99.8%. In the calculation of coal-fired carbon emissions, the fitting difference between the emissions of generator unit 1 and generator unit 2 is maintained within 2%. Overall, the CO2 emissions of power plants involved in the study are generally high. The model built through this study has well analyzed the carbon emissions of power plants. It is of great significance for the actual carbon emission reduction of coal-fired power plants.

Transportation is a key industry in urban energy consumption, air pollutant emissions and greenhouse gas emissions, which has a significant impact on air quality and climate change. The number of motor vehicles in Guangdong province continues to grow, with more than 18 million at the end of 2017. Under the dual pressure of energy and environmental protection, new energy vehicles, as an important carrier of “low-carbon economy”, have become the development direction of cars in Guangdong province. The Guangdong government adopts the B2B model to introduce new energy vehicles from the public transportation. In 2017, Guangdong province had 63,391 buses, of which new energy vehicles accounted for 46.2%. This study takes the implementation of new energy vehicles in the public transport system of Guangdong province as the research object, and the energy consumption of new energy vehicles and traditional vehicles were compared. Based on the CDM methodology, the changes in carbon emissions caused by the introduction of new energy vehicles in the transit system were calculated. Carbon emissions in 2020 were estimated according to the number of public buses in Guangdong province and the new energy bus planning. From 2016 to 2020, EV (electric vehicles) accounted for 63-79% of new energy vehicles in buses of Guangdong province, and HEV (hybrid electric vehicles), mainly natural gas and electric hybrid, accounted for 13-16% of the total buses. The total carbon emission of buses in 2020 was reduced by 44.6% compared with 2016, of which EV contributed the most to the emission reduction. In this study, different scenarios are set up to analyze the influence of power generation energy structure and vehicle fuel type on greenhouse gas emission reduction. It is found that power grid energy structure is a key factor affecting the carbon emission and emission reduction space of electric vehicles. The fuel type of vehicle directly affects the emission coefficient of CO2 per unit fuel, and plays an important role in carbon emission reduction.

Climate change is a complex and contentious public issue, but the risk-management options available to us are straightforward and have well-characterized strengths and weaknesses.

Objective: This research aims to provide essential issues to be included in the draft of new regulations to revise Law Number 22 of 2009 concerning Road Traffic and Transportation. The transportation sector plays a vital role in social mobility in Jakarta. However, the negative impact of increasing carbon emissions reaching 171 air pollution standard index (APSI) cannot be accommodated by outdated laws and poses a significant challenge to the health of the environment and urban communities now and in the future. Theoretical framework: The theory used is Carbon Emission Disclosure. We will use some of this theory to explain and incorporate it into the plans for new regulations. Carbon Emission Disclosure (CED) is one part of carbon accounting, an organization's obligation to measure, acknowledge, record, present, and disclose carbon emissions. In this context, the government is responsible for CED. Carbon Emission Disclosure was measured using several items adopted from research. There are five broad categories relevant to climate change and carbon emissions: climate change risks and opportunities, greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, reduction of greenhouse gases and costs, and accountability of emission carbon. Method: The Method uses a qualitative approach using focus group discussions and is supported by participant observation. Sixteen stakeholders, policymakers, and eight private vehicle users participated in this study, providing diverse perspectives. Research starts May 18 to November 19, 2023. The research locus is in the city of Jakarta. Results and Conclusions: This study found six themes that were taken into consideration to be included in the draft of new regulations that will be drafted. Namely Motor Vehicle Policy is to reduce the amount of reduction in the impact of carbon emissions; policy on the impact of traffic jams and density, the impact of carbon emissions on population health; limiting vehicle emissions by implementing carbon accounting; zero-emission vehicles by supporting electric vehicles; future solutions and strategies, namely implementing a Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) plan to reduce carbon emissions, and regarding the use of illegal drugs, alcohol, and several points proposed by field observation participants. Research implications: This study presents policy implications that the government can utilize to reduce the impact of carbon emissions through several parts of the CED concept, including reducing carbon emissions, high energy consumption in Jakarta can be reduced by electric vehicles, detailing emission reduction strategies, and comprehensively implementing accountability for carbon emissions serious about coal-based electricity companies around the city of Jakarta. The consequences of this strategy can range from policy formulation to developing new regulations that replace old laws. Originality/value: This research analyzes the paradigm shift, which still uses old laws to become new laws, by including the CED concept, which focuses on six themes from the results of this study. These changes can affect transportation management in Indonesia. This paradigm shift study is a new contribution because it can provide a deeper understanding of the evolution of transportation governance by reducing carbon emissions. This paradigm shift is expected to significantly shift private vehicle users to mass vehicles, reducing carbon emissions. On the other hand, the government has issued regulations President Number 61 of 2011 concerning the National Action Plan for Emission Reduction Greenhouse Gases. This regulation is issued to reduce carbon emissions. The challenge is that until now, the implementers have yet to implement it thoughtfully; its implementation is separate from the National Law and requires a solid will to include it in the new draft law as a single unit.