Field Validation of Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Fumigation for Safe and Effective Stored-Product Insect Control in Industrial Wheat Mills

Insect movement inside and outside grain bulks and processed products influences pest management decisions. Movement allows insects to find essential food resources, shelters (refuges), warmer and/or humid locations, mating and egg-laying sites, even when they are rare in fields, buildings, mills, warehouses, and inside grain masses. This review discussed the advantages and disadvantages of stored product insect movements, and the influence of insect mobility on some integrated pest management practices. Insect movement (1) results in clumped insect spatial distributions and thus makes large sample sizes necessary for monitoring; (2) makes trapping more efficient, but is influenced by many factors; (3) allows control methods to be effective, but requires pest management programs to be area-wide; (4) makes eradication of quarantine pests difficult and commodities are quickly re-infested; and (5) results in a diverse genetic pool and speeds the development of resistance to pesticides. Any element of an IPM approach should use the knowledge of insect movement. Reasons for the difficult interpretation of cryptic movement behaviours of insects were provided and future research areas were suggested.

Over the past three decades, a new pest management paradigm has been introduced into the oasian farming system of the Egyptian Western Desert. This western, scientifically-based system supplants the traditional practices developed by the farmers over the millennia. This article documents the indigenous post-harvest pest control and storage practices, discusses how current pest control methods were introduced, examines the socioeconomic factors and reasons for adoption of new technologies, and presents the farmers' perceptions of the impacts these changes have made. In conclusion, I discuss how the indigenous pest management methods may be compared and integrated with western scientific methods towards the development of an environmentally safe integrated pest management (IPM) program. These observations can have important consequences for the development, implementation, and research of pest management practices in other traditional systems.

This article considers the management approaches to designing and adopting a management system to ensure the health & safety of personnel and visitors to a food premises and comparing these to the processes used to develop an effective food safety management system. In some organisations the management systems for health & safety and food safety are distinct and managed separately, whereas in other organisations there is integration of practise and processes in an overarching management system that provides both shared learning and cross-competencies. The management of both health & safety and food safety can only be realised when there is appropriate strategic leadership, an enabling organisational culture and the daily behaviours at all levels of the organisation support a positive and collaborative environment. A failure to deliver this objective can lead to increased organisational risk across all functional areas.

Hydroprene: Mode of action, current status in stored-product pest management, insect resistance, and future prospects

The phase-out of methyl bromide and the growing resistance of stored-product pests to phosphine have intensified the need for alternative fumigants in structural pest control.This study investigates the efficacy of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) as a viable alternative, with a specific focus on its application in a wheat mill located in Gorj County, Romania.The primary objective is to assess the performance of HCN fumigation against Tribolium confusum, a major pest species in stored grain environments, across all life stages.Current literature identifies HCN as a promising, fast-acting fumigant, yet field data under real-world mill conditions remain limited.This research addresses that gap through an in-situ application, incorporating gas monitoring, environmental analysis, and mortality assessment.Materials and methods include the use of calibrated detection equipment, sealing assessments, and post-fumigation inspection to validate outcomes.Results showed 100% mortality of larval and adult stages despite challenges such as wind interference and partial structural leakage, highlighting both the efficacy and sensitivity of HCN performance to environmental and infrastructural variables.The novelty of this study lies in its field-scale application in Eastern Europe, offering rare data under operational conditions.Limitations include localized environmental variables and the need for follow-up on residual stages.The findings support HCN's relevance as a potent alternative to conventional fumigants, with significant implications for pest management protocols in grain-processing facilities.

The biopesticide market for global agricultural use

Agricultural pest management control strategies are primarily concerned with food security and safety. Popular pest control methods include application of synthetic pesticides, biopesticides (plant extracts), non-chemical pest management and integrated pest management (IPM). The resistance of some of the pests to the chemical pesticides, coupled with potential health hazards on the environment gave birth to a search for botanicals as alternatives to synthetic pesticides. Botanicals as biopesticides were, though effective but their shelf lives and specific actions on the target organisms have not been determined. Non-chemical pest control methods involve common cultural practices which include crop rotation, tillage, and varying time of planting or harvesting, trap cropping which appear to be the best in terms of food safety and quality but the ability of this approach to reduce pest population may be minimal. Because no single pest control method can guarantee food security and safety, integrated pest management (IPM) approach appears to hold promise. The IPM is an ecologically based approach that combines all the available pest control methods to manage pest damage by the most economical means, with the fewest possible hazards to life, property and environment. However, this review shows that the impact of integrated pest management in the rural farm communities is low. In an era of growing consumer awareness and sophistication, food quality is being emphasized. Food safety means that the agro-products should be free from pesticide residues:- therefore, aspects of farm management such as sources of seeds and seedlings, pests and weed elimination, pesticide application dates, dates and amount of fertilization, harvesting or post harvest treatments and basic information regarding the individual farmer or marketing agents activities should be certified before consuming agricultural products. Federal governments especially in developing countries are advised to mount regulating Agencies that will be responsible for a number of activities that contribute to food security and safety, water quality and pesticide applicator training as practiced in the United States of America, India and Indonesia. The agencies will ensure that the public is protected from potential health risks posed by pesticide treated foods.

In structural fumigations, half-loss time (HLT) is the most frequently used indicator for comparing fumigant leakage rates. In practical situations where gas leakage rates during structural fumigations are compared, environmental conditions generally are not analyzed in detail and sealing quality is assumed to be constant or fixed. This gives a false impression that a certain gas fumigant might be contained in a structure better than another fumigant. During commercial structural fumigations at the Hal Ross Flour Mill, Department of Grain Science and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA, leakage characteristics of Methyl bromide (MB) and Sulfuryl fluoride (SF) were compared by taking internal and external environmental conditions into consideration. Two sets of one 24-h MB and one 24-h SF fumigation experiments were conducted in May and August 2009. Mill sealing and fumigations were conducted by two separate commercial fumigators. After sealing, sealing quality prior to a fumigation was verified by a building pressurization test. The mill was subjected to different pressure levels generated by a specially made fan. At each pressure level, the air flow rate through a calibrated fan was measured. The observed air flow rate plotted as a function of pressure quantified leakage characteristics of the mill. In two MB and SF fumigations, gas concentrations were continuously monitored during the entire fumigation period. A weather station was installed on the roof of the mill to monitor outside barometric pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature, and relative humidity. Inside the mill, a temperature and relative humidity data logger was placed on each of the five floors of the mill. Results of this study provided a quantitative side-by-side comparison between MB and SF in the same facility. The pressurization test showed that sealing effectiveness can be quantitatively determined ahead of fumigation. It also confirmed the sealing quality for all fumigations was essentially similar. MB and SF sowed similar gas distribution and leakage characteristics. Although the observed HLTs of the fumigations were different, those differences could be explained by the differences in environmental conditions, primarily wind speed, and to a certain extent mill temperature, rather than inherent properties of MB and SF gases. Keywords : Structural fumigation, Half-loss time, Grain-processing facility, Sulfuryl fluoride, Methyl bromide

Background: Ensuring sustainable food grain storage and maintaining food and water quality remain global challenges, particularly as conventional preservation and pest-control methods often disrupt ecological balance and raise human health concerns. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising alternative, with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) demonstrating notable potential due to their antimicrobial, photocatalytic, and protective functions. Green synthesis approaches offer an environmentally responsible pathway for producing ZnO NPs while reducing reliance on hazardous chemicals. Objective: This narrative review aims to examine the green synthesis of ZnO NPs, evaluate their physicochemical and functional properties, and explore their applications in food systems, water treatment, and stored-grain protection. Main Discussion Points: The review summarizes various plant-, microbe-, and algae-mediated synthesis strategies, highlighting their advantages in terms of cost, safety, and sustainability. It discusses the functional behavior of ZnO NPs in food and water matrices, including interactions with proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, and outlines their insecticidal actions through physical abrasion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and enzymatic disruption. Their utility in food packaging, water purification, and post-harvest pest management is emphasized, alongside emerging toxicological insights defining safe exposure thresholds. Conclusion: Green-synthesized ZnO NPs present a promising, eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides and preservatives, with broad applicability across food, agricultural, and environmental sectors. However, large-scale field trials and long-term safety assessments remain essential to establish standardized guidelines and fully harness their potential.

The field of stored-product entomology deals with insect pests of raw and processed cereals, pulses, seeds, spices, dried fruit and nuts, and other dry, durable commodities. These pests cause significant quantitative and qualitative losses to the multibillion dollar grain, food, and retail industries each year through their feeding, product adulteration, customer complaints, product rejection at the time of sale, and cost associated with their management. The reduction in the number of stored-product entomologists at a time when regulations are reducing the number of chemicals available to manage stored-product insect pests is making full use of the literature on stored-product insects more important. Use of nonchemical and reduced-risk pest management methods requires a greater understanding of pest biology, behavior, ecology, and susceptibility to pest management methods. Stored-product entomology courses have been or are currently offered at land grant universities in four states in the United States and in at least nine other countries. Stored-product and urban entomology books cover the largest total numbers of stored-product insect species (100–160 and 24–120, respectively); economic entomology books (17–34), and popular articles or extension Web sites (29–52) cover fewer numbers of stored-product insect species. A review of 582 popular articles, 182 extension bulletins, and 226 extension Web sites showed that some aspects of stored-product entomology are covered better than others. For example, articles and Web sites on trapping (4.6%) and detection (3.3%) were more common than those on sampling commodities (0.6%). Natural enemies and biological control together were the subjects of only 2.6% of articles and Web sites. Locating and eliminating the source populations may be one of the least expensive and most productive components of an insect pest management program, yet sources of insect infestations were the subject of only 1.2% of articles and Web sites. Insect biology is often oversimplified in popular articles and Web sites; for example, developmental times are often characterized by a single number giving the typical number of days required to complete development from egg to adult, instead of describing how developmental times vary with temperature. Literature is available on the effects of temperature and other environmental factors on the developmental times of 106 species of stored-product insects. This article provides insights into the extent to which stored-product insects are covered in entomology books, entomology courses, popular articles, and extension bulletins and Web sites. Stored-product entomology books and courses are important because the coverage of stored-product insects is limited in urban and other entomology books and courses. In addition to failing to provide training on managing stored-product insect pests, the limited coverage of stored-product insects in many entomology books suggests to students that they are of less economic importance than is the case. We hope that this paper will encourage and facilitate more extensive coverage of stored-product insects in entomology books and courses, popular literature, and Web sites to meet the pest management needs of the grain, food processing, retail, and pest management industries.

ABSTRACTThe present contribution discusses the recent advances in the biological control of stored-grain insects with entomopathogenic fungi (EF). Thus, the effect of formulated vs. unformulated strains of EF and the effect of combinations of EF with other components, i.e. diatomaceous earths (DEs), chemical insecticides, natural products and natural enemies against stored-product insects are reviewed. Very few formulations of EF strains have been developed and used, of which invert emulsion formulation (water-in-oil type) is considered the most important. A synergistic effect of EF is produced by combining them with DEs, chemical insecticides and natural products but not with natural enemies belonging to arthropods. Moreover, since the action of EF against insect pests in general, and stored-grain insects in particular, is compatible with the food safety and environmental regulations, a good perspective for these biocontrol agents is expected as alternatives to synthetic insecticides. The potential areas of future research on the effective use of EF as biocontrol agents of stored-grain insects and the constraints that are associated with the registration and commercialization of EF as biopesticides under storage conditions are also discussed. Suggestions for the possible ways for implementation of this technology in storage systems are also provided in the present study.

In the milling industry, the Tribolium confusum is hard to exterminate pest. We measured the concentration time product (Ct-P) achieved during the hydrogen cyanide (HCN) fumigation and examined whether the Ct-P levels in the explored Czech pilot mill were sufficient to control the field strain of T. confusum. Using an originally constructed, gastight fumigation chamber, it was estimated that the Ct-P required for the complete killing of the field strain of T. confusum was 4× higher (4.35 g/h/m3) than the levels required to kill the laboratory strain (1.25 g/h/m3). The Ct-P levels (ranging from 79 g/h/m3 to 100 g/h/m3) reached during the mill fumigations with HCN were less than half of the labelled HCN rate (240 g/h/m3). Nevertheless, the current HCN dosage is still sufficient since the Ct-P reached during the mill fumigations was at least 99× higher than that required for the exterminating to the lab strain and 18× higher than that required for the field strain extermination. These results were confirmed in mill validation testing, where 100% mortality of T. confusum adults was achieved.

Phytotoxicity from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) fumigation was measured in several varieties of Hawaiian cut flowers and foliage (Zingiberaceae, Heliconia, Orchidaceae, Marantaceae, Lycopodiaceae, Agavaceae, Proteaceae) as a potential disinfestation treatment. Concentrations tested were 2500, 3700, 4600, and 5500 ppm HCN for 30 min. All foliage and most heliconia were undamaged at fumigation levels of 5500 ppm HCN; most protea and `Midori' anthuriums were uninjured at 4600 pm HCN; red and pink ginger were uninjured at 3700 ppm HCN; and all pincushion protea showed phytotoxicity to HCN. Red ginger was quickly damaged when exposed to sunlight immediately after treatment at 2500 ppm HCN. No injury was observed in simulated shipment tests of red ginger and `Ozaki' anthuriums fumigated at 2500 ppm HCN. Wet, red ginger flowers longer than 6 cm were damaged at 2500 ppm HCN, whereas shorter flowers were uninjured. Wet `Ozaki' anthuriums showed phytotoxicity only at 4600 ppm HCN. Wet, treated lycopodium and bamboo orchid foliage was not injured. The number of marketable days and shelf life of the treated plant material were estimated from the visual ratings.

The effect of low pressures on the mortality of six stored-product insect species

Silicon (Si), a key element in the Earth's crust, is vital in enhancing food security through innovative pest management strategies, both pre- and post-harvest. This review highlights the diverse impact of Si on plants, particularly its potential to mitigate biotic and abiotic stresses. Distinctions between Si and various forms of silica (SiO2) are provided for clarity. Factors influencing the properties of synthesised SiO2 particles are also discussed. When plants absorb Si, primarily as monosilicic acid, it accumulates in their cell walls as amorphous silica, which helps to enhance stress resistance, increase photosynthesis and improve water usage. Si is a morphological barrier to pests. Transporters in roots and leaves facilitate Si absorption, contributing to its deposition in cell walls and supporting structures. The resistance mechanism of Si against field and storage pests involves reduced digestibility, increased tissue stiffness and enhanced synthesis of defensive enzymes. This review provides insights into the effectiveness of Si in managing field pests, reducing infestations and improving plant resistance. The positive impact of Si extends to natural pest enemies, attracting predators and parasitoids, thus contributing to biological control. The tri-trophic interactions underscore Si's potential to induce multilevel responses, fostering a resilient ecosystem. Various Si sources, such as diatomaceous earth, bulk and nano-SiO2, effectively dehydrate and desiccate stored-product pests, preserving the quality of stored products. This review suggests using Si-based approaches as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic pesticides, offering a promising solution for food security while maintaining the long-term health of agricultural ecosystems. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.