Abstract
Without imputing desirability or success, many scholars have come to take European fascism seriously as innovative, modern and even revolutionary. Doing so might seem to buttress long-standing ways of distinguishing genuine fascism, as manifested in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, from contemporaneous regimes in Spain, Portugal, Austria and elsewhere that long seem to have exploited some of the trappings of fascism for merely authoritarian or reactionary purposes. These latter were ‘para-fascist’, in the termynology that Roger Griffin adopted 20 years ago, using ‘para’ in its dictionary sense as an alteration, perversion or simulation of the real thing.1
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