Factors affecting forage selection by the endangered Eld's deer and hog deer in the floating meadows of Barak-Chindwin Basin of North-east India

Determination of resource based stocking density of wild ungulates living in the floating meadows of Keibul Lamjao National Park, India

Unveiling the mysteries of Asian herbivores resource partitioning in tropical wet-grassland ecosystem

Seasonal variations in the water quality of a tropical wetland dominated by floating meadows and its implication for conservation of Ramsar wetlands

The hog deer (Axis porcinus) is threatened by habitat alteration, fragmentation, and poaching, which have led to a drastic decline of its wild population. Two subspecies of A. porcinus have been described from its distribution range. A. p. porcinus is reported to occur from Pakistan along the Himalayan foothills through Nepal, India and Myanmar, and A. p. annamiticus is found in Thailand, Indo-China, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. However, the current distribution range of A. p. annamiticus is still unclear. We used the partial control region (CR) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and seven microsatellite loci to investigate the intra-species structure, differentiation, and demographic history of hog deer populations from three landscapes, the Terai Arc, Northeast, and Indo-Burma (Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), Manipur, India) landscapes. We also carried out divergence time estimation using the complete mitogenome. The level of variation was ~4%, and the time of divergence of the KLNP population and the other Indian populations was about 0.22 Mya, i.e., during the last glaciation periods of the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene. The KLNP haplotypes of the control region were shared with the Southeast Asian subspecies, A. p. annamiticus. The results of the investigations of the microsatellite loci supported the mtDNA results unambiguously. Two genetically distinct lineages are found in India: one is found from the Terai Arc to Assam (A. p. porcinus) and the other in Manipur (A. p. annamiticus). The genetic diversity in KLNP was low and exhibited a higher degree of genetic differentiation compared with major Indian populations. The Bayesian skyline plots indicated that after a long phase of historic demographic stability, the populations of both the lineages of hog deer suffered pronounced declines during the period from ~800 years BP to 5000 years BP. In summary, our finding provided evidence that the KLNP population is probably a prime, isolated and sustaining stock of A. p. annamiticus and should be managed as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs).

The reliability of packed cell volumes (PCV), total solids (TS), blood glucose (BG), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and glutaraldehyde test in determining passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulins was investigated in nine species of cervids: axis deer (Axis axis), hog deer (Axis porcinus), sika deer (Cervus nippon), tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), pudu (Pudu puda), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), barasinga deer (Rucervus duvaucelli), and Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii). Individually the parameters evaluated were significant though imperfect predictors of passive transfer status in cervids. Interpreted collectively as a panel along with neonate condition, these tests were clinically helpful in diagnosing failure of passive transfer (FPT). Collectively interpreting test results as a panel along with clinical assessment of the animal is recommended. Some species-specific variations in TS, GGT, and glutaraldehyde test results were identified.

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is one of the most frequent microsporidia species causing digestive disorder mainly diarrhea in humans and animals. Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii) is the class I national key protected wildlife and only distributed on Hainan Island in China. No report on the prevalence and molecular characterization of E. bieneusi in wild Eld's deer worldwide. 217 fecal samples were collected from Eld's deer in two isolated habitats of a nature reserve in Hainan, and examined by nested Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. The overall prevalence of E. bieneusi in Eld's deer was 17.5% (38/217), with 13.5% (12/89) and 20.3% (26/128) in habitats 1 and 2, respectively. Seven ITS genotypes were identified, including five known genotypes: D (n = 19), Peru11 (n = 10), EbpC (n = 5), Peru8 (n = 1) and Type IV (n = 1), and two novel genotypes: HNED-I and HNED-II (one each). Genotypes Peru8 and Peru11 were firstly identified in cervids. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all the detected genotypes belonged to zoonotic Group 1. The results implied that the further research on threaten of E. bieneusi to endangered Eld's deer and potential risks for public health is necessary.

The population of the globally endangered hog deer (Axis porcinus) has declined severely across its geographic range. Intensive monitoring of its demographic and genetic status is necessary. We examined the demographic and genetic structure of a small hog deer population in Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), located on the western fringe of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot for conservation planning. The distribution pattern of hog deer in the Park was derived based on the presence/absence of faecal pellets in 1 km × 1 km grids. We used double-observer distance sampling method to derive the hog deer abundance and population structure and compared with previous data to derive the population trend. We determined the genetic diversity of the population through microsatellite screening and bottleneck detection. The overall pellet density was 0.34 ± 0.02 pellets km-2 restricted to only 22.34 ± 0.20 km2 area of the park. The estimated density of the deer in the park was 1.82–4.32 individuals km-2. The population showed a declining trend from 2006–08 (p < 0.05, R2 = 0.916) with 8% annum-1 and an increasing trend from 2003–2018 (p < 0.05, R2 = 0.9304) with 10% annum-1. The adult male-to-female ratio and fawn-to-doe ratio were 36.2 ± 1.9 males per 100 females and 16.5 ± 0.4 fawns per 100 females, respectively. The molecular examination suggested that the mean number of alleles at 23 loci was 2.70 ± 0.18, the observed heterozygosity (Ho) ranged from 0.26 to 0.63 (mean 0.42 ± 0.02), the expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.23 to 0.73 (χ = 0.51 ± 0.03), and the polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged from 0.2 to 0.67 (χ = 0.43 ± 0.03) indicating a moderate level of genetic diversity. Although no bottleneck in the population was observed, the loss of genetic diversity may affect the evolutionary potential of the species at the site by limiting the selection flexibility. Conservation planning coupled with scientific management regime will help in the long term persistence of the population in the region.

Hog deer (Axis porcinus) are among the rarest animals in the world and are listed as "Endangered" on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species. Protected areas in Nepal are home to large and stable populations of hog deer relative to other parts of hog deer range, but changes in predator abundance, human activities, and climate change could alter hog deer abundance. Reliable and efficient methods to assess hog deer population trends are therefore essential to monitor changes over time. Combined with data on population numbers, support from local communities towards hog deer conservation is important in identifying key threats and developing appropriate conservation strategies. Accordingly, this research integrated natural and social sciences to evaluate density estimation methods and community support for hog deer conservation within Shuklaphanta National Park (SNP), Nepal. Distance sampling along line transects is a common and relatively simple approach used to monitor hog deer populations in Nepal. Recent advances in technology, however, have enabled alternative approaches using data from remote-sensing cameras. Knowledge of the effectiveness of these two approaches could inform future monitoring efforts. Accordingly, I compared two methods for estimating the density of hog deer: distance sampling along line transects (n=17) and a random encounter model (REM) applied to data from remote-sensing cameras (n = 30). The density estimate produced by distance sampling (33.58 ± 8.48 individuals per km²) was more than double the estimate produced using the REM (12.95 ± 0.04 individuals per km²). Of the two methods, the estimate from the REM was more aligned with previous estimates of hog deer density. In addition, camera surveys facilitated the collection of data on multiple species, behaviour, and habitat use compared with line transects. However, despite requiring almost same amount of time for data collection, camera surveys proved to be more costly. These findings highlight the need for a comparison of these density estimation methods with established techniques such as mark-recapture or block counts, coupled with expanded survey efforts to assess the accuracy of estimates. To assess community support for hog deer conservation, I worked with research assistants to interview residents (n=30) from municipalities in the buffer zone surrounding SNP. Interview participants were knowledgeable about deer as a species group, but half of participants did not distinguish hog deer from other deer species. Most participants expressed positive attitudes towards hog deer conservation, especially in the context of promoting the local tourism economy around wildlife viewing. Participants explained that crop damage from deer has been largely mitigated by current management practices, such as fencing, but that additional fencing would further reduce conflicts. My findings revealed opportunities for collaboration between park managers and communities within the buffer zone, particularly around the development of the wildlife tourism industry and the design of management approaches such as fencing. Combined, my research provides guidance for future research and education efforts targeted at hog deer conservation.

Proteomic insights into the effects of cryopreservation on sperm of endangered Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii).

The complete mitochondrial genome of Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii eldii) and its phylogenetic implications

The Emerald Triangle Protected Forests Complex (ETFC) is recognized as a globally outstanding area for transboundary biodiversity conservation. Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii) include three subspecies; R. eldii siamensis, R. eldii eldii, and R. eldii thamin. This research focused on Siamese Eld's deer (R. eldii siamense), which is one of the 10 critically endangered vertebrates found in the ETFC. Its habitats are threatened by forest conversion to agriculture and human settlements, as well as by future climate change. The objectives of this article were to predict Siamese Eld's deer distribution and to determine potential shifts in its suitable habitat as the results of different land use and climate change scenarios in 2030. Occurrence data for Siamese Eld's deer were gathered from literature and field surveys. The Maximum Entropy (Maxent) and logistic regression models were used to generate suitable habitats. The model that generated the greatest accuracy was selected for distribution mapping. The results showed 142 records of Siamese Eld's deer. The predicted distribution map generated from the logistic regression model provided greater accuracy (90%) than the Maxent (80%). The predicted habitats of Siamese Eld's deer covered 6.0% of the ETFC landscape by 2013. They were concentrated in the protected areas of the lowland forests of Cambodia and Lao PDR. The land use change only did not affect the distribution of Siamese Eld's Deer, but climate change would impact the distribution substantially. In addition, the combination of all future land use and climate changes would significantly reduce the current habitat to ~2.6% of the ETFC landscape, which is a decline 58.0%. The lowest extent of 2.5% was predicted for the combination of unsustainable land use and climate change scenario. Recommendations on biodiversity conservation cooperation among the three countries, habitat protection, and ex-situ conservation were proposed.

Eld’s deer is a conserved wildlife species in Thailand. Due to the limited population group in captivity, Eld’s deer is facing a crisis of low genetic diversity, particularly among the captive Siamese Eld’s deer (SED) subspecies. This study aimed to construct genomes for a SED and a Burmese Eld’s deer (BED) for the first time and use genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to assess the genetic purity and inbreeding status of 35 SED and 49 BED with limited pedigree data. Results revealed that the 2 subspecies diverged approximately 1.26 million years ago. All SED are purebred, whereas a small proportion of admixed SED genetic materials was found in some BED. Six potential male SED breeders from zoos were identified with no genetic relation to all 14 female SED from Wildlife Breeding Centers. Additionally, 4 purebred male BED with no relation to over 10 purebred female BED were notified, offering critical insights for breeder selection to repopulate this endangered species while avoiding inbreeding. Additionally, Eld’s deer in Thailand, where tropical parasitic infections are prevalent, often harbor asymptomatic Babesia bovis infections. A study on 67 blood samples from captive SED and BED used nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) to detect B. bovis, with 25.37% (17/67) testing positive. Proteomic analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) identified 6 significantly upregulated B. bovis proteins, including Obg-like ATPase 1 (OLA1) and heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), and 55 overexpressed serum proteins in PCR-positive samples. Notably, alpha 2-HS glycoprotein (AHSG) and immunoglobulin lambda variable 2-8 (IGLV2-8) emerged as top potential biomarkers for subclinical B. bovis infection. Protein interaction networks between Eld’s deer and B. bovis proteins within the albumin, alpha-1 globulin, beta globulin, and gamma globulin fractions were also functionally enriched in immune response and host defense. Notably, interactions between B. bovis HSP and Eld’s deer albumin (ALB) proteins in the albumin fraction, as well as between Eld’s deer IGLV2-8 and B. bovis phospholipid acyltransferase (LPCAT) proteins in the beta globulin fraction were observed. These findings provide crucial insights into the molecular mechanisms of B. bovis infection, suggesting potential proteins for more sensitive diagnostics and targeted treatments. Thus, comprehensive genomic and proteomic studies offer valuable information for a sustainable and effective approach to Eld’s deer conservation in the future.

Ungulate behavior is often characterized as balancing selection for forage and avoidance of predation risk. Within partially migratory ungulate populations, this balancing occurs across multiple spatial scales, potentially resulting in different exposure to costs and benefits between migrants and residents. We assessed how availability and selection of forage and risk from predators varied between summer ranges of migrant and resident mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; a species in which individual migratory strategies are generally fixed for life) in 3 study areas in western Montana, USA, during summers 2017–2019. We hypothesized that mule deer would face a tradeoff between selecting forage and avoiding predation risk, and that migration and residency would pose contrasting availability of forage and risk at a broad (summer range) spatial scale. We hypothesized deer exposed to lower forage at a given spatial scale would compensate for reduced availability by increasing selection of forage at the cost of reduced avoidance of predators, a mechanism whereby migrants and residents could potentially achieve similar exposure to forage despite disparate availability. We compared the availability of forage (kcal/m2) and predation risk from wolves (Canis lupus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) between summer ranges of each migratory strategy, then assessed how selection for those factors at the home range (second order) and within‐home range (third order) scales varied using resource selection functions (RSFs). As forage availability increased among mule deer summer ranges and individual home ranges, selection for forage decreased at the second‐order (P = 0.052) and third‐order (P = 0.081) scales, respectively, but avoidance of predators varied weakly. In 1 study area, summer range of residents contained lower forage and higher risk than summer range of migrants, but residents compensated for this disadvantage through stronger selection of forage and avoidance of risk at finer spatial scales. In the other 2 study areas, summer range of migrants contained lower forage and higher risk than residents, but migrants did not compensate through stronger selection for beneficial resources. The majority of mule deer in our study system were migratory, though the benefits of migration were unclear, suggesting partial migration may persist in populations even when exposure to forage and predation risk appears unequal between strategies.

Group size and social organization of the endangered Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii thamin): Results from a long-term study in Myanmar

Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii) with three recognised subspecies (R. e. eldii, R. e. thamin, and R. e. siamensis) represents one of the most threatened cervids found in Southeast Asia. The species has experienced considerable range contractions and local extinctions owing to habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting, and illegal trade across its distribution range over the last century. Understanding the patterns of genetic variation is crucial for planning effective conservation strategies. This study investigated the phylogeography, divergence events and systematics of Eld's deer subspecies using the largest mtDNA dataset compiled to date. We also analysed the genetic structure and demographic history of R. e. eldii using 19 microsatellite markers. Our results showed that R. e. siamensis exhibits two divergent mtDNA lineages (mainland and Hainan Island), which diverged around 0.2 Mya (95% HPD 0.1–0.2), possibly driven by the fluctuating sea levels of the Early Holocene period. The divergence between R. e. eldii and R. e. siamensis occurred around 0.4 Mya (95% HPD 0.3–0.5), potentially associated with the adaptations to warm and humid climate with open grassland vegetation that predominated the region. Furthermore, R. e. eldii exhibits low levels of genetic diversity and small contemporary effective population size (median = 7, 4.7–10.8 at 95% CI) with widespread historical genetic bottlenecks which accentuates its vulnerability to inbreeding and extinction. Based on the observed significant evolutionary and systematic distance between Eld’s deer and other species of the genus Rucervus, we propose to classify Eld's deer (Cervus eldii) in the genus Cervus, which is in congruent with previous phylogenetic studies. This study provides important conservation implications required to direct the ongoing population recovery programs and planning future conservation strategies.