Exploring the Relationship of Muscle Dysmorphia, Orthorexia, Social Physique Anxiety, and Disordered Eating Behavior in Male Bodybuilders and Esport Athletes

Objectives: To investigate the factor structure, validity, and reliability of the bodybuilding dependence scale and to investigate differences in bodybuilding dependence between men and women and competitive and non-competitive bodybuilders....

This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of muscle dysmorphia in male bodybuilders, and to explore the relationships among muscle dysmorphia, social physique anxiety, and body checking behavior. Five hundred and twenty adult males (aged: 27.9 ± 7.5 years old), who were not engaged in competitive sports were participated for this study. After agreeing to participate, all participants were asked to complete a package of inventories, including measures of the muscle dysmorphia questionnaire, social physique anxiety inventory, and body checking behaviors questionnaire. Results showed that the overall occurrence of muscle dysmorphia was 12.5%. Participants, who scored high in muscles dysmorphia were high in global muscle checking, chest and shoulder muscle checking, comparative checking, and body testing of body checking behavior than those, who scored low in muscles dysmorphia. Our results further indicated that muscle dysmorphia, social physique anxiety, global muscle checking, chest and shoulder muscle checking, other-comparative checking, and body measuring behavior were positively correlated. Using social physical anxiety as a mediating variable, hierarchical regression analysis showed that impact of muscle dysmorphia on body checking behaviors remains positive, but less variance accounted. Mediating results suggested that social physical anxiety partially attributed the relationship between muscle dysmorphia and body checking behaviors. On the other hand, social physical anxiety plays an important mechanism for muscle dysmorphia to body checking behaviors. Therefore, we concluded that the occurrence of muscle dysmorphia is related to social physique anxiety, and the muscle dysmorphia predicted the checking behavior of muscularity.

Objectives: To investigate the association between muscle dysmorphia (MD), social physique anxiety, and body-checking behavior in male college students with weight exercise, and to reveal the association between them.Methods: A total of 492 male college students with weight exercise from 18 Fitness Clubs or bodybuilding centers in Chengdu, China, participated in this study.Results: First, the social physique anxiety scores, body checking frequency, and weight exercise behavior (i.e., frequency, time, and intensity) in male college students with MD were significantly higher than those without MD; it indicated that the higher the exercise frequency they had, the longer the exercise time they cost, and the higher exercise intensity carried out, and the higher the social physique anxiety scores tended to be, the higher the frequency of body checking on “global muscles,” “chest and shoulder muscles,” “comparison with others” and “posture measurement” they did. Second, the mediating effect of the social physique anxiety on MD and body checking was established in the “MD → global muscle checking,” “MD → chest and shoulder muscle checking,” “MD → comparison with others,” and “muscle dysmorphia → posture measurement.”Conclusion: Male college students with MD not only have a higher social physique anxiety, but also a higher frequency of body-checking behavior than the ordinary individuals. Social physique anxiety is one of the important mediating factors to those with MD which affects the body-checking behavior.

Background: The use of dietary supplements and drugs to improve performance and physical appearance has recently increased among professional and recreational ‎athletes. Literature shows that bodybuilders, more than other athletes use supplements and drugs. Objectives: This study aims to predict the use of supplements and drugs by muscle dysmorphia and social physique anxiety variables among Hamedan bodybuilders. Methods: This cross-sectional investigation was conducted with 438 bodybuilders in Hamedan province. For collecting data, we used a demographic questionnaire, muscle dysmorphia scale, and social ‎physique anxiety scale. Results: The results showed that 79.2% of the subjects used supplements, and vitamins (22.1%) and protein powders (21.9%) had the highest rates of use among supplements. Moreover, 145 subjects (33.1%) used drugs, and steroid derivatives (16.2%) and peptide hormones and growth factors (12.6%) had the highest rates of use among drugs. The results of t-test showed that muscle dysmorphia and social physique anxiety were significantly higher in the subjects who used supplements and drugs than those who did not. Additionally, the results of logistic regression indicated that muscle dysmorphia and social physique anxiety can predict the likelihood of drug abuse. Conclusions: The present study provides novel findings of the effect of social physique anxiety and muscle ‎dysmorphia on nutritional supplement and drugs use among bodybuilders. ‎

In recent years, psychological issues in bodybuilding have received much research attention.1–4 Given both the popularity of training with weights and the many interesting psychological issues surrounding this phenomenon, research...

Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is associated with a self-perceived lack of size and muscularity, and is characterized by a preoccupation with and pursuit of a hyper-mesomorphic body. MD symptoms may hypothetically be more prevalent in bodybuilders (BBs) than in non-bodybuilder resistance trainers (NBBRTs). Our objective was to compare MD symptomatology in BBs versus NBBRTs and identify psychological and other characteristics associated with MD in these groups. We searched relevant databases from earliest record to February 2015 for studies examining MD symptoms in BBs and/or NBBRTs. Included studies needed to assess MD using a psychometrically validated assessment tool. Study quality was evaluated using an adapted version of the validated Downs and Black tool. We calculated between-group standardized mean difference (effect sizes [ESs]) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each MD subscale, and performed meta-analysis when five or more studies used the same MD tool. We also extracted data describing psychological or other characteristics associated with MD. Of the 2135 studies initially identified, 31 analyzing data on 5880 participants (BBs: n=1895, NBBRTs: n=3523, controls: n=462) were eligible for inclusion, though study quality was generally poor-moderate (range 7-19/22). Most participants were male (90%). Eight different MD assessment tools were used. Meta-analysis for five studies all using the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) revealed there was a medium to large pooled ES for greater MD symptomatology in BBs than in NBBRTs on all MDI subscales (ES 0.53-1.12; p≤0.01). Competitive BBs scored higher than non-competitive BBs (ES 1.21, 95% CI 0.82-1.60; p<0.001). MD symptoms were associated with anxiety (r 0.32-0.42; p≤0.01), social physique anxiety (r 0.26-0.75; p<0.01), depression (r 0.23-0.53; p≤0.01), neuroticism (r 0.38; p<0.001), and perfectionism (r 0.35; p<0.05) and were inversely associated with self-concept (r -0.32 to -0.36; p<0.01) and self-esteem (r -0.42 to -0.47; p<0.01). MD symptomatology was greater in BBs than in NBBRTs. Anxiety and social physique anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and perfectionism were positively associated with MD, while self-concept and self-esteem were negatively associated. It remains unclear whether these characteristics are exacerbated by bodybuilding, or whether individuals with these characteristics are attracted to the bodybuilding context.

This study aimed to examine the association between social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy in bodybuilders. This cross-sectional study included 384 male bodybuilders. 5.7% of the participants reported muscular dystrophy. Younger age and use of protein powder were associated with higher scores on the muscle dysmorphic disorder Inventory. Higher muscular dystrophy was associated with higher social physique anxiety. Young male bodybuilders using protein powder are at increased risk to suffer from social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy.

The aim was to understand experiences of male competitive bodybuilders from a non-pathologizing perspective. Six male Norwegian competitive bodybuilders were interviewed. The interviews were analysed using a meaning condensation procedure resulting in five themes: being proud of capacity for discipline, seeing a perfectionist attitude as a necessary evil, experiencing recognition within the bodybuilding community, being stigmatized outside the bodybuilding community and going on stage to display a capacity for willpower and discipline. We suggest that bodybuilders may be stigmatized for breaking social norms: by their distinctive appearance, by the way they handle suspected drug use and by challenging gender norms.

Numerous anthropometric equations have been developed to estimate body density (BD) for various populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the use of 20 existing equations for estimating BD in 12 competitive male bodybuilders (24.0 ± 3.0 yrs.: X ± SD). Actual BD was determined by underwater weighing corrected for residual Lung volume. Anthropometric measures taken in duplicate included skinfolds (SF), circumferences, and diameters. Measurements were taken one to two days prior to actual competition. The bodybuilders were characterized by a body weight of 81.24 ± 13.96 kg, BD of 1.0812 ± 0.0099 g·ml−1, and relative fat of 8.48 ± 3.90 percent. Comparisons of the 20 equations revealed 12 equations with similar predicted BD when compared to actual BD. Pearson r values for these 12 equations ranged from .62 to .81. With the additional considerations of number of measures, intertester variability, and preference for quadratic equations, the equation of Lohman, BD = 1.0982 − 0.000815 (triSF + scapSF + abdSF) + 0.0000084 (triSF + scapSF + addSF)2, was found to be particularly appropriate for the estimation of BD in extremely muscular and lean body builders. The use of these equations may also be appropriate for estimating BD in male athletes with similar physical characteristics, such as wrestlers, gymnasts, and certain football players, as well as others.

Muscle dysmorphic disorders (MDD) have been described as a body image disorder, characterized by a perceived lack of muscularity, and largely affect males. PURPOSE: The study aimed to determine the rates and relationships among MDD, body image disturbance and eating disorders in both competitive/professional and non-competitive/ recreational male bodybuilders. METHODS: The participants consist of 120 bodybuilders (competitive, n=62 (mean age 31.05 ± 10.60 yr) and non-competitive, n=58 (mean age 25.63 ± 6.67 yr) recruited from four bodybuilding gym centers in Ankara, Turkey. Weight, height and body fat percentage were measured with BIA (Tanita, TBF- 300). To assess symptoms of eating disorders, muscle dysmorphia, and body dissatisfaction, the participants were asked to answer four questionnaires, including Eating Attitude Test (EAT)-40, Muscle Dysmorphia Disorder Inventory (MDDI), and Bodybuilder Image Grid (BIG)-Original (BIG-O) and Scale (BIG-S), the instruments to measure the perceptual body images disturbance and perceived attractiveness. A multiple linear regression model was used to identify independent factors associating eating disorders. RESULTS: 81 bodybuilders (67.5%) had EAT-40 scores above its cut off point, indicating having eating disorders, and there was no significant difference between competitive and non-competitive bodybuilders (p>0.05). The average scores of BIG-O and BIG-S showed statistically significant differences (p<0.01) in current and ideal body fat and muscle mass scores, indicating the most bodybuilders desire to be leaner (less fat) and muscular than their current body sizes. According to MDDI, 70 bodybuilders (58.3%) had a risk of having MDD. Furthermore, there was a significant positive relationship between EAT-40 and MDDI total scores (r= 0.614, Φ= 0.713, p<0.001) in both competitive and non-competitive bodybuilders. A linear regression analysis predicts that the eating disorder was a relative risk factor for MDDI and muscle-related body dissatisfaction in male bodybuilders. CONCLUSIONS: Eating disorder psychopathology is positively related with body dissatisfaction and body dysmorphic disorders. The screening tools, EAT-40, MDDI, and BIG-O and BIG-S may provide early detections of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in male bodybuilders.

Objective: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the features of Muscle Dysmorphia and other body image-related concerns in a sample of competitive male bodybuilders. Method: We screened 217 male athletes, 119 bodybuilders and 98 fitness practitioners, recruited in 12 gymnasiums in Southern Italy, by means of an ad hoc socio-demographic schedule, the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) and the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS). Results: Twenty one of the bodybuilders (17.6%) show high levels of preoccupation and dissatisfaction with their muscularity, 45.4% (N=54) a marked dependence on bodybuilding; 35.3% (N=42) follow a high-protein diet and 35.3% (N=42) used vitamin supplements to improve their weightlifting performances and favor post-training physical recovery. In addition, forty-three (36.1%) also report use of substance while nine subjects (7.6%) declare to avoid situations in which their body might be seen or manifest high levels of distress when this happens. The ANCOVA (Exercise Frequency per Week as a covariate) results indicate that bodybuilders, compared to fitness practitioners, report significant elevations in all measures. Moreover, considering only the bodybuilders sample, who report a regular use of substance scored higher in Dietary Behavior, Body size-symmetry, Physique Protection, Supplement Use MDI scales and on Body building Dependence, Muscle Checking and Injury MASS subscales. Discussion: Our findings seem to suggest that the practice of the bodybuilding is associated to the proposed criteria of muscle dysmorphia if compared with regular fitness practice. In particular, we found that a regular use of substance was associated with greater dissatisfaction with muscularity.

This study examined the mediating role of drive for muscularity and social physique anxiety (SPA) in the perceived muscular male ideal physique and muscle dysmorphia relationship in weight training men. Men (N = 146, mean ± SD; age, 22.8 ± 5.0 years; weight, 82.0 ± 11.1 kg; height, 1.80 ± 0.07 m; body mass index, 25.1 ± 3.0) who participated in weight training completed validated questionnaires measuring drive for muscularity, SPA, perceived muscular male ideal physique, global muscle dysmorphia, and several characteristics of muscle dysmorphia (exercise dependence, diet manipulation, concerns about size/symmetry, physique protection behavior, and supplementation). Perceived ideal physique was an independent predictor of muscle dysmorphia measures except physique protection (coefficients = 0.113-0.149, p ≤ 0.05). Perceived ideal physique also predicted muscle dysmorphia characteristics (except physique protection and diet) through the indirect drive for muscularity pathway (coefficients = 0.055-0.116, p ≤ 0.05). Perceived ideal physique also predicted size/symmetry concerns and physique protection through the indirect drive for muscularity and SPA pathway (coefficients = 0.080-0.025, p ≤ 0.05). These results extend current research by providing insights into the way correlates of muscle dysmorphia interact to predict the condition. The results also highlight signs (e.g., anxiety about muscularity) that strength and conditioning coaches can use to identify at-risk people who may benefit from being referred for psychological assistance.

Bodybuilding involves performing a series of poses on stage where the competitor is judged on aesthetic muscular appearance. The purpose of this study was to describe training practices and ergogenic aids used by competitive bodybuilders and to determine whether training practices comply with current recommendations for muscular hypertrophy. A web-based survey was completed by 127 competitive male bodybuilders. The results showed that during the off-season phase of training (OFF), the majority of respondents performed 3-6 sets per exercise (95.3%), 7-12 repetition maximum (RM) per set (77.0%), and 61- to 120-seconds recovery between sets and exercises (68.6%). However, training practices changed 6 weeks before competition (PRE), where there was an increased number of respondents who reported undertaking 3-4 sets per exercise at the expense of 5-6 sets per exercise (p < 0.001), an increase in the number reporting 10-15RM per set from 7-9RM per set (p < 0.001), and an increase in the number reporting 30-60 seconds vs. 61-180 seconds recovery between sets and exercises (p < 0.001). Anabolic steroid use was high among respondents competing in amateur competitions (56 of 73 respondents), whereas dietary supplementation was used by all respondents. The findings of this study demonstrate that competitive bodybuilders comply with current resistance exercise recommendations for muscular hypertrophy; however, these changed before competition during which there is a reduction resistance training volume and intensity. This alteration, in addition to an increase in aerobic exercise volume, is purportedly used to increase muscle definition. However, these practices may increase the risk of muscle mass loss in natural compared with amateur bodybuilders who reportedly use drugs known to preserve muscle mass.

Objective: To assess the muscle dysmorphic traits, orthorexia nervosa and social anxiety among male bodybuilders.Study Design: A cross-sectional study.Place and Duration of Study: The Study was carried out at Department of Clinical Psychology of Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University, Islamabad from May 2020 to December, 2020.Materials and Methods: A sample of 320 male bodybuilders within age range of 15 to 25 years were included in the study from gym centers of Islamabad and Rawalpindi. A web- based questionnaire comprising of closedended questions was used to obtain data about demographics, muscle dysmorphia, orthorexia nervosa andsocial anxiety. Data was analyzed on SPSS software 23 version.Results: Our study found a significant relationship between muscle dysmorphia, orthorexia nervosa and socialanxiety among male body builders. We found muscle dysmorphic predicts 1.9% in orthorexia nervosa and 0.6%variance in social anxiety.Conclusion: Society sets the standards of beauty for male population and when these 't are not met,individuals start to perceive imagined or slight flaws in their physical appearance, body shape, muscularity andsize. The present study examined muscle dysmorphia, orthorexia nervosa and social anxiety among male bodybuilders. This study found male body builders with the muscle dysmorphic traits engage in orthorexia nervosa and experience social anxiety.How to cite this: Fatima M, Sarfraz EB. Body Builders Profiling about Muscle Dysmorphic Traits, Orthorexia Nervosa and Social Anxiety. Life and Science. 2022; 3(3): 115-119. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.225

The present study examines how muscle dysmorphia (MD), a clinically significant preoccupation that one’s body is inadequately muscular, relates to trait anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. 97 college-age men completed the MD Inventory, the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Male Body Attitudes Scale, the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, the trait scale of the Speilberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory , and an abbreviated version of the Yale Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale. Bivariate correlation analyses revealed that trait anxiety and obsessivecompulsive symptoms demonstrated strong relationships with both social physique anxiety and overall MD symptomology. Path analysis indicated that anxiety- related variables accounted for 77 percent of the variance in MD symptoms. The findings lend support to the assertion that MD should be placed within the obsessive- compulsive spectrum of disorders.