Explaining thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in sexual minoritized men: Longitudinal support for the tripartite influence model.

Celebrity worship and disordered eating among Chinese adolescents: The sequential mediating roles of upward physical appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction.

Body image disturbance has permeated Western society and is experienced by women and men of all ages and life stages (Grogan, 2016). Further, body dissatisfaction is associated with behavioural, psychological, physical, and interpersonal consequences (Cash, 2012; Grogan, 2016; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Accordingly, body image literature has expanded exponentially over the past 30 years. However, prominent gaps remain within the literature, three of which are considered in this thesis. These are: the trajectory, prevalence and cohort effects of body image disturbance across the adult lifespan for women and men, body dissatisfaction in midlife women, and the role body image disturbance plays in romantic relationships. The first of the three empirical papers examined patterns of developmental change and cohort effects in body image across the male and female adult lifespan. Body satisfaction was assessed in longitudinal data spanning six years, from 2010 to 2015. Cohort sequential latent growth curve modelling was utilized to assess patterns of mean-level change due to both aging and cohort effects in 15264 participants (62.9% women) aged between 19 – 74 years (M= 46.55, SD= 14.24). Results demonstrated a slight increase in body satisfaction across the lifespan for both men and women. Examination of cohort effects revealed that for women aged 54 years and below, all but two cohorts (24 – 29 & 34 – 39 years) displayed an upward trajectory in their body satisfaction over the 5-year period of assessment. No consistent cohort effects were evident for men. Finally, men consistently displayed higher levels of body satisfaction compared to women across the lifespan. This study provided insights into the trajectory of body image across the lifespan for men and women. The findings also suggest that body image may be improving for women in recent years. The second of the three empirical papers investigated the applicability of the Tripartite Influence Model (TIM) to midlife women. Female participants (N=206) aged 40-55 years (M = 46.75, SD = 4.54) completed measures related to sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalisation, appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, bulimic symptoms, restrained eating, and psychological distress. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the model. As predicted, greater peer and media pressure were associated with greater appearance comparison which in turn was associated with greater body dissatisfaction. Also as predicted, greater body dissatisfaction was associated with greater restrained eating and bulimic symptoms, which in turn were associated with greater psychological distress. Contrary to predictions, none of the sociocultural influences were associated with thin-ideal internalization, and family pressure was not associated with appearance comparison. Furthermore, appearance comparison was not associated with body dissatisfaction. A number of unpredicted associations also emerged. Family and media pressure were directly associated with body dissatisfaction, and peer pressure was directly associated with psychological distress. Furthermore, unpredicted direct associations were also found between thin-ideal internalisation and disordered eating, and between appearance comparison and both bulimic symptoms and psychological distress. Overall, the findings provided partial support for applicability of the TIM for midlife women. The third of the three empirical papers sought to advance understanding of the associations between body image and relationship outcomes within heterosexual romantic relationships. In two studies (Study 1: N = 197 couples, Mage = 22.99; Study 2: N = 97 couples, Mage = 25.36), both members of dating and/or married couples reported on their body image, perceptions of partner’s attraction to the self, own attraction toward the partner, and relationship satisfaction. Study 2 also incorporated measures of participants’ body mass index (BMI) and sexual satisfaction. Across both studies, women who had poorer body image perceived their partner to be less attracted to them (irrespective of their partners’ actual attraction to them or how attracted they were to their partner), which in turn was associated with lower relationship and sexual satisfaction. For men, attraction to their partner was consistently associated with their own relationship satisfaction. Results demonstrated that projection biases are a possible mechanism through which body image is associated with romantic relationship outcomes. In sum, the results of this compendium of research speak to important aspects within the body image literature. Namely, results suggest that body dissatisfaction appears to improve across the female and male lifespan, and appears to be improving in younger cohorts. Further, we find that the Tripartite Influence Model (Thompson et al., 1999) is partially applicable to midlife female populations. Finally, the last two studies suggest that projection biases are a potential mechanism through which body image may impede upon romantic relationship outcomes.

The Tripartite Influence model of body image and eating disturbance: A covariance structure modeling investigation testing the mediational role of appearance comparison

Body dissatisfaction in midlife women: The applicability of the tripartite influence model

My mother, sisters, and I: Investigating the role of female family members in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviours among young Middle-Eastern women

Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls’ body dissatisfaction

An etiological model of disordered eating behaviors among Brazilian women

Pregnancy and childbirth result in dramatic changes in a woman's body shape and weight, which are often associated with body image concerns. Little is known about the factors that influence body dissatisfaction in postpartum women, or the extent to which this constitutes a time of risk for eating disorders. To bridge this gap, we extended the Tripartite Influence Model among women who had given birth during the last 12 months (N=689) and who completed an online survey. Participants were 30.6 years old (SD=4.8) and 53% were primiparous. Measures included a sociocultural pressures scale modified for the postpartum experience assessing pressure from media, peers, family and partners, and well-established measures of thin-ideal internalization, appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, and drive for muscularity, and disordered eating. Structural Equation Modeling analyses revealed that the addition of the partner influence variable to the Tripartite Influence Model improved the model fit to the data by 25%; χ2 (49) = 220.20, p < 0.001, RMSEA = .086, CFI = .93. The sociocultural variables (i.e., media, partners, family, peers) explained 59% of the variance in thin-ideal internalization and comparison, with media influences emerging as the strongest (β = .58). Bootstrapping analyses revealed a significant indirect effect of media, family, peer, and partner pressures on body dissatisfaction, psychological functioning, bulimic symptomatology, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity, through the thin-ideal internalization and comparison latent variable. Qualitative data highlighted themes of body dissatisfaction, appearance comparison, occupational pressures, and the drive for muscularity during the postpartum period. Findings suggest that women experience strong sociocultural pressures to attain an unrealistic body shape and size during the post-pregnancy period. Furthermore, partners may play an important role in reinforcing thin-ideal messages during this vulnerable time.

Body image is an integral aspect of the psychology of the self. Idealized body images are ubiquitous in both traditional media forms (e.g., magazines, television) and social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram). The classic sociocultural model of body image (i.e., the Tripartite Influence Model) emphasizes pathways between idealized body norms, appearance comparisons, internalization of body ideals, and body dissatisfaction and its outcomes. We summarize the model and identify some issues to be addressed in future work, particularly in light of the immense popularity of social media. We review three topics that are not included in the sociocultural model but that provide a more complete picture of the influence of societal body norms on body image: (1) body shame, (2) positive body image, and (3) self-compassion. Research on the nature, assessment, and relevance of these constructs is reviewed in detail. In terms of clinical applications of these areas of research for individuals at risk of body dissatisfaction, we suggest assessing for and targeting body shame, cultivating facets of positive body image, and teaching strategies for developing self-compassion.

Athletes face a unique set of environmental, interpersonal, and performance-based appearance pressures that may increase risk for disordered eating. Frequent exposure to idealized body standards and performance expectations, within both athletic and broader sociocultural contexts, has been linked to body dissatisfaction and unhealthy eating behaviors, which may also be overlooked as "good athlete" behaviors. One framework for understanding such risk factors is the Tripartite Influence Model, which posits that societal appearance-related pressures are associated with body dissatisfaction and disordered eating via three specific pathways. The current study evaluates and extends the Tripartite Model to identify potential sociocultural pathways to disordered eating symptoms among athletes. The final sample consisted of 334 young adult athletes (73.35% female, 23.35% male, 3.30% another gender). Path analysis evaluated a model with previously supported sociocultural pressures in the general population (family, peers, media), combined with two sport-specific pressures (coaches, teammates) associated with five disordered eating outcomes-body dissatisfaction, binge eating, excessive exercise, restrictive eating, and cognitive restraint-via indirect effects through thin-ideal internalization, athletic-ideal internalization, and appearance comparisons. After minor adjustments to accommodate theoretically justified covariances (e.g., thin-ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction), the final model demonstrated acceptable fit (CFI = 0.96; TLI =.88; RMSEA = 0.075; SRMR = 0.060). Indirect effects revealed that family and media pressures were associated with multiple disordered eating outcomes via internalization and appearance comparison processes, while teammate pressure was indirectly associated with excessive exercise through athletic-ideal internalization, underscoring teammates as a salient source of sport-specific appearance pressure.

An evaluation of the Tripartite Influence Model of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance with adolescent girls

Sociocultural theory of body dissatisfaction posits that internalization of the media ideal and appearance comparison are predictors of body dissatisfaction, a key risk factor for eating disorders. However, no data exist regarding the longitudinal relationships between these variables. The aim of this study was to explore longitudinal relationships among internalization of the media-ideal, social appearance comparison, and body dissatisfaction. A sample of 277 Grade 7 school girls (M age = 12.77 years, SD = 0.44) completed measures of internalization of the media ideal, social appearance comparison, and body dissatisfaction at baseline, 8 months, and 14 months. Path analyses indicated that baseline internalization of the media ideal predicted social appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction at 8 months, and social appearance comparison at 8 months predicted body dissatisfaction at 14 months. A reciprocal effect emerged with body dissatisfaction at 8 months predicting internalization of the media ideal at 14 months. The findings inform sociocultural theory of body dissatisfaction, suggesting that internalization of the media ideal precedes and predicts appearance comparison and that body image interventions that target internalization of the media ideal, and social appearance comparison as well as body dissatisfaction are likely to be effective.

Based on the tripartite influence model, the present study linked investment in others' selfies on social media to facial dissatisfaction and cosmetic surgery consideration. We also tested the mediating role of appearance comparisons and general attractiveness internalization in these relationships. Additionally, potential gender differences in the proposed model were examined. A sample of 884 Chinese adolescents (mean age=16.80 ± 0.92, ranging from 14 to 19 years old) completed self-reported measures of investment in others' selfies, appearance comparisons, general attractiveness internalization, facial dissatisfaction, and cosmetic surgery consideration. Results showed that investment in others' selfies was positively associated with facial dissatisfaction and cosmetic surgery consideration. Path analysis further revealed that investment in others' selfies was associated with appearance comparisons and general attractiveness internalization, which in turn were associated with facial dissatisfaction, and then facial dissatisfaction was related to cosmetic surgery consideration. Additionally, there were indirect associations between investment in others' selfies and cosmetic surgery consideration via general attractiveness internalization and facial dissatisfaction respectively, but not via appearance comparisons. No gender difference was found in the proposed model. Findings of the present study provide preliminary support for the tripartite influence model in the context of investment in others' selfies on social media and cosmetic surgery consideration and enrich the literature on body image and cosmetic surgery in the Chinese context.

This study explores the complex arena of Eating Disorders among adults, encompassing various conditions such as Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, Binge-Eating Disorder, and the nuanced category of Eating Disorders Not Otherwise Specified (EDNOS). The study focuses on a thematic content analysis of ten TEDx talks from YouTube between 2014 and 2024. It provides detailed narratives of individual experiences of crisis, loss, and non-linear recoveries related to Eating Disorders. Moreover, the study employs the Tripartite Influence Model (TIM) as a theoretical framework, describing the intricate relationship between societal influences, appearance comparisons, and the internalization of body ideals in shaping self-worth and body image. The findings elaborate on the profound impact of societal expectations on adults responsible for disordered eating behaviours, body image disturbances, and complex emotional struggles. Thematic content analysis, guided by the TIM, identifies three key themes: the Illusion of Control, External Validation and Self-Worth, and the Stigma around Eating Disorders. These themes offer a comprehensive understanding of the sociological challenges faced by individuals, highlighting the need for future interventions and support systems against eating disorders. The research contributes to the broader acknowledgment of common sociological causes influencing the onset and development of Eating Disorders among adults, underlining the importance of addressing these issues for individual and societal well-being.

The mother-daughter-sister triad: The role of female family members in predicting body image and eating behaviour in young women