Experimentally Determining the Molecular Weight of Carbon Dioxide Using a Mylar Balloon

Topics commonly taught in a general chemistry course can be used to calculate the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere by various human activities. Each calculation begins with the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that produces the CO2 gas. Stoichiometry, thermochemistry, the ideal gas law, and dimensional analysis are then used to determine the source's CO2 emission factor. This factor expresses the quantity of gas emitted for a given quantity of activity of the source. In the examples discussed, the mass of carbon dioxide is expressed in terms of the mass of cement produced by a cement factory, the volume of gasoline consumed by an automobile, and the heat produced by burning natural gas. The carbon footprint of each source can be determined from its CO2 emission factor.

A review of the processes in the Earth’s atmosphere that affect its energetics is presented. The energetics balance of the Earth and its atmosphere as a whole is considered, and the results of NASA programs for the monitoring of the global temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere are presented. The spectra of the optically active components of the atmosphere in the infrared region are analyzed on the basis of classical methods of molecular spectroscopy. Spectroscopic data from the HITRAN databank facilitate the analysis and lead to a simple scheme whereby the three main greenhouse components—carbon dioxide, water vapor in the form of free water molecules, and a water droplet—create an infrared radiation flux directed toward the Earth’s surface. This radiation is created by water molecules in the range of 0–580 cm–1, the atmospheric radiation in the range of 580–780 cm–1 is determined by the molecules of water and carbon dioxide. At frequencies above 780 cm–1, the contribution to atmospheric radiation due to water molecules is approximately 5%, and the other is determined by the emission of water microdroplets, which partially form clouds. According to this model, at the present atmospheric composition, 52% of the radiation flux to the Earth’s surface is created by atmospheric water vapor, and 32% is due to microdroplets of water in the atmosphere, which include about 0.4% of atmospheric water and 14% of the radiation flux is determined by carbon dioxide molecules. Doubling the mass of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which will occur in about 120 years at the current rate of growth of atmospheric carbon dioxide, will lead to an increase in the atmospheric radiation flux towards the Earth by 0.7 W/m2, and a 10% increase in the atmospheric concentration of water molecules increases this radiation flux by 0.3 W/m2. Doubling of the mass of atmospheric carbon dioxide in a real atmosphere leads to an increase in the global temperature of 2.0 ± 0.3 K in a real atmosphere, according to NASA data analysis. If the concentration of other components does not change, then the change in global temperature will be 0.4 ± 0.2 K, and the contribution to this change due to industrial emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is 0.02 K.

The process of injection of carbon dioxide into a porous reservoir, which initially contains methane and its hydrate, is considered. The initial thermodynamic conditions in the reservoir correspond to the stable existence of methane hydrate. During the entire injection process, the reservoir temperature is negative, that is, water can be present either in the form of ice, or in the composition of methane or carbon dioxide hydrates, and the pressure is such that carbon dioxide does not condense. For the considered process, a mathematical model of non-isothermal filtration of a two-component gas is presented, taking into account the formation and decomposition of hydrates. Numerical experiments have been carried out on the basis of this mathematical model. The graphs of the distributions of the main parameters in the reservoir (partial pressures of the gas mixture components, temperature, saturations of the porous medium with various substances), as well as graphs of the time variation of the total mass of carbon dioxide buried in the reservoir and the mass of carbon dioxide in the hydrate are given. It is shown that the injected carbon dioxide displaces methane from the injection boundary and replaces the methane in the hydrate and the greater the pressure of the injected carbon dioxide, the greater the mass of the hydrate in which gas is replaced.

Alternative solvents for cellulose derivatives:: Miscibility and density of cellulosic polymers in carbon dioxide+acetone and carbon dioxide+ethanol binary fluid mixtures

Visual Presentation L3 With hydrocarbon extraction and transmission networks being consumers of energy, there is high sensitivity across the industry towards carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases being emitted. These emissions need to be measured accurately and reported correctly for commercial and legislative reasons. On any facility there are multiple sources of emissions, both intended and unintended. This paper outlines an approach and technology to measure and report all known sources of emissions consistently accurately, in an auditable and transparent fashion. By calculation of each source’s carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent mass depending on the nature of the emission source, the total emissions of a site can be reported. The calculation of carbon dioxide from any single emissions source is dependent on numerous factors. For sources which consume hydrocarbons, the mass of carbon dioxide and equivalents in exhausts depends on the hydrocarbon composition, combustion mechanism and combustion efficiency and nature, and any treatments of emissions. The gathering of live process data relating to all these factors directly and indirectly is shown through the treatments described to be effective with general and specific treatments of each factor and the contributing data sources for each is described in some specific examples. The combination of these calculated emissions based on live measurement data for multiple emission sources and their totalisation by emission type, emission source, and the relation of these to other key production factors is described. The validation process of emissions calculations, the totalisations and the analysis of emissions by activity is described. To access the Visual Presentation click the link on the right. To read the full paper click here

With hydrocarbon extraction and transmission networks being consumers of energy, there is high sensitivity across the industry towards carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases being emitted. These emissions need to be measured accurately and reported correctly for commercial and legislative reasons. On any facility there are multiple sources of emissions, both intended and unintended. This paper outlines an approach and technology to measure and report all known sources of emissions consistently accurately, in an auditable and transparent fashion. By calculation of each source’s carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent mass depending on the nature of the emission source, the total emissions of a site can be reported. The calculation of carbon dioxide from any single emissions source is dependent on numerous factors. For sources which consume hydrocarbons, the mass of carbon dioxide and equivalents in exhausts depends on the hydrocarbon composition, combustion mechanism and combustion efficiency and nature, and any treatments of emissions. The gathering of live process data relating to all these factors directly and indirectly is shown through the treatments described to be effective with general and specific treatments of each factor and the contributing data sources for each is described in some specific examples. The combination of these calculated emissions based on live measurement data for multiple emission sources and their totalisation by emission type, emission source, and the relation of these to other key production factors is described. The validation process of emissions calculations, the totalisations and the analysis of emissions by activity is described.

This paper introduced an attitude control system, which used saturated carbon dioxide as a medium. Through energy conversion, the system converted the pressure energy of gas-liquid mixed carbon dioxide into velocity energy and formed supersonic flow through the nozzle to generate thrust and torque. Compared with the compressed gas attitude control system, the carbon dioxide system had a better compelling specific impulse. With the continuous consumption of the medium, a large amount of liquid carbon dioxide was transformed into a gaseous state. Simultaneously, the pressure variation was slight, which was conducive to control. With a higher initial temperature, more liquid carbon dioxide was consumed, and the thrust was more significant under the same conditions of tank volume and carbon dioxide mass; meanwhile, the faster the temperature decreased.

A two-dimensional numeric simulator is developed to predict the nonlinear, convective-reactive, oxygen mass exchange in a cross-flow hollow fiber blood oxygenator. The numeric simulator also calculates the carbon dioxide mass exchange, as hemoglobin affinity to oxygen is affected by the local pH value, which depends mostly on the local carbon dioxide content in blood. Blood pH calculation inside the oxygenator is made by the simultaneous solution of an equation that takes into account the blood buffering capacity and the classical Henderson-Hasselbach equation. The modeling of the mass transfer conductance in the blood comprises a global factor, which is a function of the Reynolds number, and a local factor, which takes into account the amount of oxygen reacted to hemoglobin. The simulator is calibrated against experimental data for an in-line fiber bundle. The results are: (i) the calibration process allows the precise determination of the mass transfer conductance for both oxygen and carbon dioxide; (ii) very alkaline pH values occur in the blood path at the gas inlet side of the fiber bundle; (iii) the parametric analysis of the effect of the blood base excess (BE) shows that (.)V(CO₂) is similar in the case of blood metabolic alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, or normal BE, for a similar blood inlet P(CO₂), although the condition of metabolic alkalosis is the worst case, as the pH in the vicinity of the gas inlet is the most alkaline; (iv) the parametric analysis of the effect of the gas flow to blood flow ratio (QG/QB) shows that (.)V(CO₂) variation with the gas flow is almost linear up to QG/QB = 2.0. (.)V(O₂) is not affected by the gas flow as it was observed that by increasing the gas flow up to eight times, the (.)V(O₂) grows only 1%. The mass exchange of carbon dioxide uses the full length of the hollow-fiber only if Q(G) /Q(B)> 2.0, as it was observed that only in this condition does the local variation of pH and blood P(CO₂) comprise the whole fiber bundle.

The volumetric properties of carbon dioxide + acetone mixtures have been determined at 323, 348, 373, 398, and 423 K at pressures up to 70 MPa using a variable-volume view cell. Densities for pure components and mixtures containing 90, 80, 70, and 50% by mass carbon dioxide are reported as a function of pressure at each temperature. It is shown that this system undergoes a density crossover at high pressures with each composition, a phenomenon previously reported also for mixtures of carbon dioxide + pentane and carbon dioxide + toluene. In the composition range investigated, the excess volume of the mixtures becomes more positive with increasing pressure but more negative with increasing temperature.

Gas Laws summarizes the general laws that describe how the volume of a gas changes in response to changes in pressure (P), temperature (T in Kelvin) or the number of moles (n). The ideal gas law, which combines Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and Avogadro’s law, is presented, with explanations of using it to solve gas-law problems. Mathematical rearrangements of the ideal gas law to determine density and molar mass are described along with the use of Dalton’s law of partial pressures to find the pressure of each gas in a mixture. Finally the chapter presents ideal gas law and reaction stoichiometry, Graham’s law of effusion, and basic notions of real gases and their deviation from the ideal gas laws.

One of the most critical greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide (CO2) due to its long-lasting and negative impact on climate change. The global atmospheric monthly mean CO2 concentration is currently greater than 410 ppm which has changed dramatically since the industrial era. To choose suitable climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies it is necessary to define carbon dioxide mass distribution and global atmospheric carbon dioxide mass. The available method to estimate the global atmospheric CO2 mass was proposed in 1980. In this study, to increase the accuracy of the available method, various observation platforms such as ground-based stations, ground-based tall towers, aircrafts, balloons, ships, and satellites are compared to define the best available observations, considering the temporal and spatial resolution. In the method proposed in this study, satellite observations (OCO2 data), from January 2019 to December 2021, are used to estimate atmospheric CO2 mass. The global atmospheric CO2 mass is estimated around 3.24 × 1015 kg in 2021. For the sake of comparison, global atmospheric CO2 mass was estimated by Fraser’s method using NOAA data for the mentioned study period. The proposed methodology in this study estimated slightly greater amounts of CO2 in comparison to Fraser’s method. This comparison resulted in 1.23% and 0.15% maximum and average difference, respectively, between the proposed method and Fraser’s method. The proposed method can be used to estimate the required capacity of systems for carbon capturing and can be applied to smaller districts to find the most critical locations in the world to plan for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

China has frequently been questioned about the data transparency and accuracy of its energy and emission statistics. Satellite-derived remote sensing data potentially provide a useful tool to study the variation in carbon dioxide (CO2) mass over areas of the earth's surface. In this study, Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) tropospheric CO2 concentration data and NCEP/NCAR reanalysis tropopause data were integrated to obtain estimates of tropospheric CO2 mass variations over the surface of China. These variations were mapped to show seasonal and spatial patterns with reference to China's provincial areas. The estimates of provincial tropospheric CO2 were related to statistical estimates of CO2 emissions for the provinces and considered with reference to provincial populations and gross regional products (GRP). Tropospheric CO2 masses for the Chinese provinces ranged from 53 ± 1 to 14,470 ± 63 million tonnes were greater for western than for eastern provinces and were primarily a function of provincial land area. Adjusted for land area troposphere CO2 mass was higher for eastern and southern provinces than for western and northern provinces. Tropospheric CO2 mass over China varied with season being highest in July and August and lowest in January and February. The average annual emission from provincial energy statistics of CO2 by China was estimated as 10.3% of the average mass of CO2 in the troposphere over China. The relationship between statistical emissions relative to tropospheric CO2 mass was higher than 20% for developed coastal provinces of China, with Shanghai, Tianjin, and Beijing having exceptionally high percentages. The percentages were generally lower than 10% for western inland provinces. Provincial estimates of emissions of CO2 were significantly positively related to provincial populations and gross regional products (GRP) when the values for the provincial municipalities Shanghai, Tianjin, and Beijing were excluded from the linear regressions. An increase in provincial GRP per person was related to a curvilinear increase in CO2 emissions, this being particularly marked for Beijing, Tianjin, and especially Shanghai. The absence of detection of specific elevation of CO2 mass in the troposphere above these municipalities may relate to the rapid mixing and dispersal of CO2 emissions or the proportion of the depth of the troposphere sensed by GOSAT.

Liquid carbon dioxide (L-CO2) phase-transition blasting technology (LCPTB) has caused wide concern in many fields, but there is a lack of research on the initiation of the carbon dioxide fracturing pipe. Studies regarding the carbon dioxide fracturing pipe initiation are critical for controlling and optimizing the LCPTB. Therefore, in this article, a series of exploratory experiments of carbon dioxide blasting were carried out to investigate the qualitative and quantitative relationships between the carbon dioxide fracturing pipe initiation and the three key variables (the filling mass of liquid carbon dioxide (L-CO2) (X1), the amount of chemical heating material (X2) and the thickness of the constant-stress shear plate (X3)). The failure mechanisms of three variables on the phase-transition blasting process of a carbon dioxide fracturing pipe was analyzed qualitatively based on experiment temperature, strain curve and failure form of constant-stress shear plate. An empirical model between the carbon dioxide fracturing pipe initiation (Y) and the three key variables (X1, X2, X3) was obtained after processing experiment result data quantitatively. Based on the phase-transition and blasting process of carbon dioxide, two methods, the Viral–Han–Long (VHL) equation of gas state (EOS) and the strength-failure method were used to calculate the blasting pressure and determine the failure mode of the fracturing pipe. The proposed blasting empirical model can be used to optimize the structural design of carbon dioxide fracturing pipes, guide on-site carbon dioxide blasting operations and further achieve the best blasting effect of LCPTB, so this work can enable LCPTB to be better applied to practical projects.

The dilution of atmospheric carbon dioxide by carbon dioxide from fossil fuels is estimated to be about 3½ pct, on the basis of radiocarbon assays of tree rings of known ages from several trees of different genera, after allowance has been made for effects attributable to ecological differences. The cumulative mass of fossil carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere is 3.3 x 1017 gm, equivalent to about 14 pct of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Based on these data, the fractional part of the atmospheric carbon dioxide which enters the ocean each year is estimated to be 0.062. Radiocarbon assays of several nineteenth‐century marine shells and of their modern counterparts indicate a one to two per cent dilution of shallow oceanic carbonates by carbon dioxide from fossil fuels. Use of these data in a simplified mathematical model of atmosphere‐ocean yields information on mixing times of the ocean.

Has done research on different container and the syringe bulb to determine the number of moles of air. If the gas or air is introduced into the syringe or bulb then the more air is forced into it. The analysis uses Boyle-Mariotte law shows that the number of moles of air in the syringe with constant temperature and number of moles of air at constant volume is a sphere with eqqual 0.02 mol. Thus two different media (cylindrical and spherical), giving the same number of moles. Obtaining the number of moles show that the application of Boyle-Mariotte is derived from the ideal gas law is appropriate.