Abstract
We aimed at unveiling the role of executive functions (EFs) and language-related skills in spelling for mono- versus multilingual primary school children. We focused on EF and language-related skills, in particular lexicon size and phonological awareness (PA), because these factors were found to predict spelling in studies predominantly conducted with monolinguals, and because multilingualism can modulate these factors. There is evidence for (a) a bilingual advantage in EF due to constant high cognitive demands through language control, (b) a smaller mental lexicon in German and (c) possibly better PA. Multilinguals in Germany show on average poorer German language proficiency, what can influence performance on language-based tasks negatively. Thus, we included two spelling tasks to tease apart spelling based on lexical knowledge (i.e., word spelling) from spelling based on non-lexical strategies (i.e., non-word spelling). Our sample consisted of heterogeneous third graders from Germany: 69 monolinguals (age: M = 108 months) and 57 multilinguals (age: M = 111 months). On less language-dependent tasks (e.g., non-word spelling, PA, intelligence, short-term memory (STM) and three EF tasks testing switching, inhibition, and working memory) performance of both groups did not differ significantly. However, multilinguals performed significantly more poorly on tasks measuring German lexicon size and word spelling than monolinguals. Regression analyses revealed that for multilinguals, inhibition was related to spelling, whereas switching was the only EF component to influence word spelling in monolinguals and non-word spelling performance in both groups. By adding lexicon size and other language-related factors to the regression models, the influence of switching was reduced to insignificant effects, but inhibition remained significant for multilinguals. Language-related skills best predicted spelling and both language groups shared those variables: PA for word spelling, and STM for non-word spelling. Additionally, multilinguals’ word spelling performance was also predicted by their German lexicon size, and non-word spelling performance by PA. This study offers an in-depth look at spelling acquisition at a certain point of literacy development. Mono- and multilinguals have the predominant factors for spelling in common, but probably due to superior language knowledge, monolinguals were already able to make use of EF during spelling. For multilinguals, German lexicon size was more important for spelling than EF. For multilinguals’ spelling these functions might come into play only at a later stage.
Highlights
Spelling per se is a highly crucial skill, because “[. . .] struggling with spelling production may result in students being demotivated, running out of time, having less time for planning or writing a shorter text” (Rønneberg and Torrance, 2017, p. 2)
Group comparisons between mono- and multilinguals for all variables are displayed in Table 1. (For results of error rates in the executive functions (EFs) tasks, see Supplementary Table 1.) As can be seen in
We studied a naturally heterogeneous sample of mono- and multilingual third graders in Germany, with multilinguals having on average a lower SES and smaller German lexicon size
Summary
Spelling per se is a highly crucial skill, because “[. . .] struggling with spelling production may result in students being demotivated, running out of time, having less time for planning or writing a shorter text” (Rønneberg and Torrance, 2017, p. 2). Known predictors for literacy in general are specific language [such as phonological awareness (PA) and size of the mental lexicon] and cognitive skills [in particular executive functions (EFs)], but their role in spelling is not clear-cut It remains unknown if these predictors play the same role for multilinguals. A main contributor to this risk is the on average lower proficiency in German, the language of schooling (Niklas et al, 2011) This impacts negatively on their reading performance. Intelligence To assess the participants’ non-verbal intelligence, in particular their ability to recognize and continue figurative relationships and logical sequences, we used the Culture Fair Intelligence Test Scale 1 (CFT 1-R, Weiß and Osterland, 2013) We assessed these skills with three subtests, namely Matrix, Series, and Classification. The sum of correct answers served as a measure of intelligence
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