Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data

Adaptive radiation is hypothesized to be a primary mechanism that drives the remarkable species diversity and morphological disparity across the Tree of Life. Tests for adaptive radiation in extant taxa are traditionally estimated from calibrated molecular phylogenies with little input from extinct taxa. With 85 putative species in 33 genera and over 400 described extinct species, the carnivoran superfamily Musteloidea is a prime candidate to investigate patterns of adaptive radiation using both extant- and fossil-based macroevolutionary methods. The species diversity and equally impressive ecological and phenotypic diversity found across Musteloidea is often attributed to two adaptive radiations coinciding with two major climate events, the Eocene-Oligocene transition and the Mid-Miocene Climate Transition. Here, we compiled a novel time-scaled phylogeny for 88% of extant musteloids and used it as a framework for testing the predictions of adaptive radiation hypotheses with respect to rates of lineage diversification and phenotypic evolution. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence for rapid bursts of lineage diversification at the origin of Musteloidea, and further analyses of lineage diversification rates using molecular and fossil-based methods did not find associations between rates of lineage diversification and the Eocene-Oligocene transition or Mid-Miocene Climate Transition as previously hypothesized. Rather, we found support for decoupled diversification dynamics driven by increased clade carrying capacity in the branches leading to a subclade of elongate mustelids. Supporting decoupled diversification dynamics between the subclade of elongate mustelids and the ancestral musteloid regime is our finding of increased rates of body length evolution, but not body mass evolution, within the decoupled mustelid subclade. The lack of correspondence in rates of body mass and length evolution suggest that phenotypic evolutionary rates under a single morphological metric, even one as influential as mass, may not capture the evolution of diversity in clades that exhibit elongate body shapes. The discordance in evolutionary rates between body length and body mass along with evidence of decoupled diversification dynamics suggests that body elongation might be an innovation for the exploitation of novel Mid-Miocene resources, resulting in the radiation of some musteloids.

The spontaneous immortalization probability of mammalian cell culture strains, as their proliferative capacity, correlates with species body mass, not longevity

Body size is a central determinant of a species' biology and adaptive strategy, but the number of reliable estimates of hominin body mass and stature have been insufficient to determine long-term patterns and subtle interactions in these size components within our lineage. Here, we analyse 254 body mass and 204 stature estimates from a total of 311 hominin specimens dating from 4.4 Ma to the Holocene using multi-level chronological and taxonomic analytical categories. The results demonstrate complex temporal patterns of body size variation with phases of relative stasis intermitted by periods of rapid increases. The observed trajectories could result from punctuated increases at speciation events, but also differential proliferation of large-bodied taxa or the extinction of small-bodied populations. Combined taxonomic and temporal analyses show that in relation to australopithecines, early Homo is characterized by significantly larger average body mass and stature but retains considerable diversity, including small body sizes. Within later Homo, stature and body mass evolution follow different trajectories: average modern stature is maintained from ca 1.6 Ma, while consistently higher body masses are not established until the Middle Pleistocene at ca 0.5–0.4 Ma, likely caused by directional selection related to colonizing higher latitudes. Selection against small-bodied individuals (less than 40 kg; less than 140 cm) after 1.4 Ma is associated with a decrease in relative size variability in later Homo species compared with earlier Homo and australopithecines. The isolated small-bodied individuals of Homo naledi (ca 0.3 Ma) and Homo floresiensis (ca 100–60 ka) constitute important exceptions to these general patterns, adding further layers of complexity to the evolution of body size within the genus Homo. At the end of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, body size in Homo sapiens declines on average, but also extends to lower limits not seen in comparable frequency since early Homo.

We know that the total daily energy dissipation increases in complex organisms like the humans. It’s very probable that this increase in total energy dissipation is related to the progressive increase in mass. But we also know that day by day the dissipation of energy per unit mass decreases in these organisms. We intend to verify if this decrease is only an expression of the second law of thermodynamics, or if it is related to the increase in mass that occurs in these organisms. For this, we set ourselves the following objectives: verify the correlation between total energy dissipation and the evolution of body mass, and verify the correlation between the dissipation of energy per unit of mass and the evolution of body mass. As a result of the data analysis, we found a high degree of correlation between total energy dissipation and the evolution of body mass. And we also found a high correlation between the energy dissipated per unit of mass and the evolution of body mass. We can conclude that self-organization produces not only an increase in mass, but also a decline in energy dissipation per unit mass beyond what is expected by the second law of thermodynamics.

MotivationBody mass is one of the most important determinants of animal ecology. Unlike other important traits it is also readily inferable from fossils and it is therefore one of the only traits that can be directly analysed and compared between fossil and contemporary communities. Despite this, no comprehensive database of the body mass of larger clades of extinct species exists. Analysis of fossils has therefore been restricted to small clades or to smaller, potentially biased, subsets of species. We here describe CarniFoss, an open‐access database of body masses of all 1,322 extinct species of non‐pinniped Carnivoramorpha and two related extinct groups of carnivorous mammals, Hyaenodonta and Oxyaenidae.Main types of variables containedWe gathered lengths of teeth of fossil and extant species and body mass for extant species and a few of the best‐known fossil species. Following this we estimated body mass for all species through phylogenetic imputation.Spatial location and grainGlobal, terrestrial.Time period and grainWe collected data on all known species within the focal groups. The known species all lived in the Palaeogene, Neogene or Quaternary (i.e., the last 66 Myr).Major taxa and level of measurementWe searched for data on reported tooth size of all described species of Carnivoramorpha (excluding pinnipeds) and selected extinct related groups (Hyaenodonta and Oxyaenidae). We combined this with measured body mass for all extant species and inferred body mass based on long‐bones for selected extinct species, as well as a species‐level phylogeny including all extant and extinct species in the group, and inferred the body mass for all species using phylogenetic imputation.Software formatData are provided as a series of .csv files, with all metadata in a separate PDF file.

The evolution of body mass is a fundamental topic in evolutionary biology, because it is closely linked to manifold life history and ecological traits and is readily estimable for many extinct taxa. In this study, we examine patterns of body mass evolution in Felidae (Placentalia, Carnivora) to assess the effects of phylogeny, mode of evolution, and the relationship between body mass and prey choice in this charismatic mammalian clade. Our data set includes 39 extant and 26 extinct taxa, with published body mass data supplemented by estimates based on condylobasal length. These data were run through 'SURFACE' and 'bayou' to test for patterns of body mass evolution and convergence between taxa. Body masses of felids are significantly different among prey choice groupings (small, mixed and large). We find that body mass evolution in cats is strongly influenced by phylogeny, but different patterns emerged depending on inclusion of extinct taxa and assumptions about branch lengths. A single Ornstein-Uhlenbeck optimum best explains the distribution of body masses when first-occurrence data were used for the fossil taxa. However, when mean occurrence dates or last known occurrence dates were used, two selective optima for felid body mass were recovered in most analyses: a small optimum around 5kg and a large one around 100kg. Across living and extinct cats, we infer repeated evolutionary convergences towards both of these optima, but, likely due to biased extinction of large taxa, our results shift to supporting a Brownian motion model when only extant taxa are included in analyses.

The evolution of body mass and relative brain size in fossil hominids

Dinocephalians were the earliest large terrestrial tetrapods from Gondwana, making this group crucial in understanding body mass (BM) evolution in basal synapsids, but no detailed weight determinations are available for the clade. Here we present the first BM estimate for a dinocephalian on the basis of the remarkably well preserved and complete skeleton of the basal tapinocephalid Tapinocaninus pamelae from the lowermost Beaufort Group of South Africa. We reconstructed three 3D models of Tapinocaninus using mounted skeletons of the dinocephalians Moschops and Ulemosaurus to reconstruct the missing elements. Applying a density range between 0.9 and 1.15 Kg/1000 cm3 for living tissue to the model we reconstructed an average BM of 892.63 Kg for the taxon. Classic regression formulae, based on humerus and femur circumference, provide higher values of 1694.5 Kg and 2015.8 Kg, with an overestimation of 90% and 126% respectively. The study confirms that volumetric BM estimates are more precise, and are recommended if relatively complete skeletons are available. The ‘intermediate’ posture recognized for Tapinocaninus, more upright with respect to the sprawling condition characterizing sphenacodontid ‘pelycosaurs’, could represent a response to a large BM, which, for the first time in synapsids, reaches weights close to a tonne.

Body size is a central determinant of a species' biology and adaptive strategy, but the number of reliable estimates of hominin body mass and stature have been insufficient to determine long-term patterns and subtle interactions in these size components within our lineage. Here, we analyse 254 body mass and 204 stature estimates from a total of 311 hominin specimens dating from 4.4 Ma to the Holocene using multi-level chronological and taxonomic analytical categories. The results demonstrate complex temporal patterns of body size variation with phases of relative stasis intermitted by periods of rapid increases. The observed trajectories could result from punctuated increases at speciation events, but also differential proliferation of large-bodied taxa or the extinction of small-bodied populations. Combined taxonomic and temporal analyses show that in relation to australopithecines, early Homo is characterized by significantly larger average body mass and stature but retains considerable diversity, including small body sizes. Within later Homo , stature and body mass evolution follow different trajectories: average modern stature is maintained from ca 1.6 Ma, while consistently higher body masses are not established until the Middle Pleistocene at ca 0.5–0.4 Ma, likely caused by directional selection related to colonizing higher latitudes. Selection against small-bodied individuals (less than 40 kg; less than 140 cm) after 1.4 Ma is associated with a decrease in relative size variability in later Homo species compared with earlier Homo and australopithecines. The isolated small-bodied individuals of Homo naledi ( ca 0.3 Ma) and Homo floresiensis ( ca 100–60 ka) constitute important exceptions to these general patterns, adding further layers of complexity to the evolution of body size within the genus Homo . At the end of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, body size in Homo sapiens declines on average, but also extends to lower limits not seen in comparable frequency since early Homo .

Body mass is a critical variable in many hominin evolutionary studies, with implications for reconstructing relative brain size, diet, locomotion, subsistence strategy, and social organization. We review methods that have been proposed for estimating body mass from true and trace fossils, consider their applicability in different contexts, and the appropriateness of different modern reference samples. Recently developed techniques based on a wider range of modern populations hold promise for providing more accurate estimates in earlier hominins, although uncertainties remain, particularly in non-Homo taxa. When these methods are applied to almost 300 Late Miocene through Late Pleistocene specimens, the resulting body mass estimates fall within a 25-60 kg range for early non-Homo taxa, increase in early Homo to about 50-90 kg, then remain constant until the Terminal Pleistocene, when they decline.

Body size correlates with virtually every aspect of species biology, so understanding the tempo and mode of its evolution is of key importance in macroecology and macroevolution. Here we use body mass data from 3,473 of 4,510 extant mammalian species and an almost complete species-level phylogeny to determine the best model of log(body mass) evolution across all mammals, split taxonomically and spatially. An early-burst model fits better across all mammals than do models based on either Brownian motion or an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process, suggesting that mammals experienced a burst of morphological evolution relatively early in their history that was followed by slower change. We also use spatial models to investigate rates of body mass evolution within ecoregions. These models show that around 50% of the variation in rate can be explained by just a few predictors. High estimated rates are associated with cold, low-lying, species-poor, high-energy, mainland ecoregions. We conclude that the evolution of mammalian body size has been influenced by a complex interplay among geography, climate, and history.

The relationship between talar size and body mass in extant primates is examined to provide the regression equations for estimating the body mass of extinct primate species based on the talar size. The results indicate that, among the linear talar dimensions, the whole talar size and the tibial trochlear size are good body mass estimators for primates. As an example, the regression equations presented here were applied to the body mass estimates of the fossil tali (NMMP-39 and NMMP-82) of the amphipithecid primates from the middle Eocene Pondaung Formation of Myanmar. Based on the estimated body masses determined by this study, NMMP-39 (estimated body mass: ca. 2.7 kg) should likely be assigned to Ganlea megacanina or Myanmarpithecus yarshensis, while NMMP-82 (estimated body mass: ca. 4.9 kg) should likely be assigned to ‘Amphipithecus’ mogaungensis or Pondaungia cotteri.

We used a recent passerine phylogeny and comparative method to evaluate the macroevolution of body and egg mass, incubation and fledging periods, time to independence and time with parents of the main passerine lineages. We hypothesised that passerine reproductive traits are affected by adaptation to both past and present environmental factors and phenotypic attributes such as body mass. Our results suggest that the evolution of body and egg mass, time to independence, incubation and fledging times are affected by strong phylogenetic inertia and that these breeding traits are all affected by body mass. Time with parents, where major lineages exhibit their own fixed optima and body mass does not have an effect, and clutch size which is affected by body mass and additionally by climate regimes, do not exhibit any phylogenetic inertia.

Assessing body mass in mammals is of importance as it influences virtually all aspects of mammal physiology, behavior and ecological parameters. However, the assessment of body mass of large mammals is potentially dangerous and logistically challenging. Photogrammetry (measurements through the use of photographs) is a well‐established science. In zoology it has been used with varying success to estimate the size and mass of some marine and terrestrial mammal species. However, photogrammetric body mass estimation of terrestrial mammals has received comparatively little attention. This is largely due to species' variable morphological attributes which complicates measurement especially if, for 3D orientation, photogrammetric models are dependent on identifiable features on the animals themselves. Ninety‐two individuals belonging to 16 terrestrial mammalian species were weighed and photographed for body mass estimation using a volumetric photogrammetry method, purposely applied with commercially available software. This method is not dependent on identifiable body features for 3D orientation. Measured body mass ranged from 25 kg to 4060 kg. Photogrammetric mass estimates versus physically weighed mass was plotted and the goodness of fit assessed for each species. Body size, shape and physiological attributes influence the accuracy of body mass estimation between species (although consistent within species), largely attributed to morphological features (e.g., hair length and posture). This photogrammetric method accurately estimated the body mass of several terrestrial mammal species. It represents innovative use of photographs to create calibrated three‐dimensional imagery for accurate quantification of mammalian metrics, specifically body volume and mass. Advances of a method that is not subject to species, sex or age is advantageous and suitable for wide application in our effort to model population demography.

The effect of age and body composition on body mass estimation of males using the stature/bi-iliac method