EVIDENCE BASED AND INTELLIGENCE LED POLICING IN SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS CONTROL IN THE REPUBLIC OF NORTH MACEDONIA A strategy for SALW control in accordance with the National action plan 2022–2024

More than 20 years since its negotiation in 2001, the UN Program of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA) is failing to fulfill the expectations of states and civil society alike. Considering the absolute numbers of military and civilian possession, the aim of tackling the illicit proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in “all its aspects” is currently likely to fail. Studies show that civilian ownership has increased dramatically since 2006. The estimated stocks of SALW in sub-Saharan Africa are 11 million state-owned SALW and 40 million SALW in the hands of civilians. Legal arms exports between states remain another source. This article seeks to identify the different facets of the continuous crisis of SALW control by relying on a global governance perspective as well as on norm research in international relations. The sources of illicit SALW proliferation are manifold and often exceed the capabilities of arms control and disarmament. The present article focuses on the external and internal dimensions for the crisis of illicit SALW proliferation. However, when looking at the internal dimension of the SALW crisis, the UNPoA itself is also partly to blame for the inadequate and ineffective arms control and disarmament efforts. This gloomy picture is exacerbated by statistics indicating that the numbers of newly manufactured SALW are still growing more rapidly than worldwide disarmament efforts. It is more important than ever to ensure that prescriptive norms are translated into everyday practical political and social realities to meet the needs of people struggling with the dire consequences of illicit SALW proliferation.

An estimated 640 million Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) are currently in circulation around the globe. Most human casualties in wars and also most violent criminal acts in peace are committed by the use of SALW. The Western Balkans is a region where SALW were used for defensive and offensive purposes in a series of wars and where they continue to be a problem in the post-conflict time. The current SALW problem in the region refers mainly to the illegal possession, use and proliferation of weapons. Smuggling and illicit trafficking of SALW has become a profitable business, which is conducted by criminal networks along the Balkan smuggling route. Some European terrorist groups also used the Balkan channel to obtain SALW. Also an inseparable part of state-building in the region was actually related to the clandestine smuggling of SALW. The situation has improved by the end of 2008, yet a more comprehensive analytical reflection on the past and present issues in the field of SALW is missing. It is not clear what kind of problem and threat SALW represent in a time of decreasing conventional and probably also organized crime. The aim of this essay is to show the complexity of the SALW problem in the Western Balkans by identifying key lessons to be learnt from the past. My goal is also to identify and elaborate key present challenges. The latter encompass a broad spectrum of problems and dilemmas, which are persistent, complex and cannot be solved over night. These goals can be achieved only if put into a proper introductory context.

The year 2006 marked a charged year of events and developments for issues relating to conventional weapons within the framework of the United Nations. The central event was the convening of the United Nations Conference to Review Progress Made in the Implementation of the Programme of Action (PoA) to Prevent Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) in All Its Aspects in June-July. Though failing to adopt an outcome document, owing to disagreement over a possible follow-up mechanism, the Conference reaffirmed the relevance of the PoA and its continuing implementation. The lack of an outcome document was mitigated, inter alia, by several developments later in the year. First, the General Assembly at its fall session decided to convene the next biennial meeting of States to consider the implementation of the PoA. Second, the actual implementation of actions flowing from the PoA continued with the start of the work of the Group of Governmental Experts to consider further steps to enhance international cooperation in preventing, combating and eradicating illicit brokering in small arms and light weapons. Third, also at its fall session, the Assembly requested the Secretary-General to establish a Group of Governmental Experts to consider further steps to enhance cooperation with regard to the issues of conventional ammunition stockpiles in surplus. Also in the realm of small arms and light weapons, the Security Council held another open debate on the issue in March, considering ways and means to deal with the issue of the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons.

This study explored the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the karamajong cluster by examining the impact of socio-economic and political factors on proliferation of small arms and light weapons in the Karamajong Cluster. The study sought to find out how small arms and light weapons move within the study area and their effect. A mixed methods research design was used. The target population was the residents of Karamajong cluster who had information regarding the topic under discourse. Their population was 32378 from which a total of 156 respondents who participated was drawn through stratified random sampling for residents and purposive sampling for administrators. A structured questionnaire was used to obtain information from the residents while interview schedule guides were used to obtain information from the cluster heads of the Karamajong cluster. Hypotheses was tested using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r)at α =0.05 level of significance. The results obtained from the study reveals that economic hardship, socio-economic disparities, and political instability significantly contribute to the proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in the Karamajong Cluster. It was determined that 93% of the respondents alluded that there was proliferation of SALW while 7% on the other hand denied this fact. Marginalized communities, driven by poverty and historical conflicts, increasingly turn to arms for protection and power. To address the root causes of SALW proliferation, it is essential to enhance economic stability through development initiatives. Programs should focus on creating job opportunities, reducing poverty, and providing alternative means of income.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons on women’s security in the Adamawa region of Cameroon. A mixed-methods approach and descriptive research design were adopted for the study. A total of 268 participants responded to the survey. Simple random and purposive sampling techniques were employed due to the dense population of Ngaoundere. Data were collected using questionnaires and key informant interviews, which gathered both qualitative and quantitative information. The collected data were entered and analyzed using the latest version of SPSS. The analysis revealed that the population of Ngaoundere, Adamawa Region, Cameroon, is diverse, primarily consisting of nationals from the Far North region of Cameroon, as well as individuals from other areas such as the North West and South West Regions of the country. The study area is also home to a number of expatriates, mainly humanitarian workers and refugees. The level of aggression involving small arms and light weapons (SALW) in Ngaoundere has increased over the past decade. Most victims of aggression involving SALW are women, making them particularly vulnerable to threats posed by these weapons. The study recommends the establishment of a national commission on Small Arms and Light Weapons. Additionally, it advocates for the increased inclusion of women in discussions related to security and disarmament.

This paper analyses the role of the arms trade in the growth and spread of transnational crime in Africa. The work shows that the proliferation and ready availability of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) on the continent is contributing in no small measure to political, economic and social insecurity in Africa. Major transnational crimes that the work identifies in Africa include drug trafficking, human and people trafficking, environmental crimes, arms trafficking and stolen vehicle trafficking. The work uses qualitative research methodology, which involves the extensive collection, collation and analysis of secondary data, to capture the essence and scope of the impacts of SALW on the growth and spread of transnational crime on the continent. A major and significant contribution of the work is the crucial connection that it establishes between the proliferation of SALW and the high incidence and recurrence of transnational crime in Africa. The work shows the destabilizing impacts of the proliferation of SALW in Africa and how these is contributing to the recurrence of conflicts and criminal activities on the continent. In its conclusion, the work recommends that in order for states on the continent to be able to proactively tackle transnational crime and the proliferation of SALW, they will have to do the following: carry-out an extensive and critical survey to create a database that will identify the nature of the different transnational crime that is carried-out in each regions; create (where it does not exist) and, strengthen and implement (where it exist) legislations and laws designed to tackle transnational crime; and encourage interagency cooperation and coordination among the affected states in the regions.

It is observed that the smuggling and circulation of small arms and light weapons (SALWs) is increasing in leaps and bounds in Nigeria. The proliferation of SALWs has threatened national security as non-state armed groups and criminal networks are gaining access to and freely using SALWs to attack civilians and public goods in Nigeria. While most of the existing studies have linked the proliferation to porous borders (lack of border security), there is limited focus on supply and demand-side of SALWs in Nigeria. Thus, this paper examines the impact of supply–demand forces of SALWs and porous border on the proliferation of SALWs in Nigeria, and their implications on national security. This paper is anchored on supply and demand model of SALWs. Data were sourced from the Nigeria’s National Security Strategy (NSS) through Office of the National Security Adviser (ONSA) and National Commission on Small Arms and Light Weapons (NATCOM-SALW). Also, data from the United Nations Officer on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and Small Arms Survey (SAS) were used. In addition, data were obtained from Newspapers and Online News Portals such as Premium Times, the Guardian Nigeria, Daily Trust and Vanguard for reports on arms smuggling and security incidents. Also, the investigative reports of Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch were used. In addition, relevant academic sources were used. The analysis revealed that the current socio-economic (such as high rate of poverty and inequality) and political conditions (marginalisation of specific groups, communities or regions) in Nigeria have led to the emergence of armed groups and criminal networks such as Boko Haram, militia groups (Bandits), MASSOB, IPOB among others. Also, the porous borders make it easy for these groups to smuggle SALWs into Nigeria from their suppliers. Based on the findings, the paper concluded that adverse socio-economic and political conditions in Nigeria is responsible for increased demand for SALWs; and the presence of porous borders or weak border management facilitates smuggling and circulation of SALWs in Nigeria. Therefore, the paper recommends that Nigerian government should make efforts to address the drivers responsible for increased demand for SALWs; and formulate adequate measures such as border patrol using technological gadgets among others to block smuggling and circulation of SALWs into the country.

This paper analyses the trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) from 1990 to 2017. Our analysis relies on an unbalanced panel of 79,245 observations reporting SALW exports between 9275 pairs of countries. In particular, we study the impact of embargoes on trade in SALW. We use a gravity model framework including, in addition to traditional gravity variables, specifically SALW trade controls. The main results show that: (i) embargoes reduce SALW exports to sanctioned countries by 33%; (ii) an EU embargo appears to determine a decrease of 37% of SALW transfers, whereas for UN embargoes the impact is not significant. In addition, we found no warning signals of sanctions‐busting. First, countries do not seem to import a larger number of SALW if neighbours are under an embargo. Second, the findings show that embargoes have no statistically significant effect on the trade in sporting arms. Results are robust to some robustness checks, in particular to endogeneity.

Somalia is frequently referred to as a fragile state due to decades of protracted conflicts, which have led to widespread instability and weak governance. Volatility in the country is linked to the widespread proliferation of illegal Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs). SALWs are any man-portable lethal weapons designed to expel or launch a shot, bullet, or projectile by the action of an explosive. They are a category of firearms designed for individual use and characterized by their compact size and portability. For three decades, the country has been plagued by conflict and violence, primarily driven by the proliferation of these weapons, which are frequently acquired through illegal channels. These weapons are held by various actors, including armed groups, militias, and civilians, creating a significant challenge in regulating their distribution and use. This article aims to examine the relationship between illegal SALW proliferation and sustainable peace and development in Somalia. The research employs a case study approach, analyzing primary and secondary data to understand how SALWs undermine peace and development in Somalia. Adopting social conflict theory, this study views the societal environment through the lens of power struggles, inequalities, and conflicts among different groups. According to this theory, social structures generate tension and disparities, ultimately leading to violence and conflicts. The findings suggest that the availability of SALWs make it easier for insurgent groups in Somalia to engage in violence and criminal activity, such as piracy and extortion, exacerbating the instability of the country. The study proposes that to achieve sustainable peace and development in Somalia, it is essential to address the issue of small arms and implement measures to reduce their proliferation and use, such as stricter laws and enforcement, disarmament programs, and efforts to disrupt the illegal arms trade. In addition, there is a need for greater regional cooperation as a recommendation to manage the problem of illegal SALWs in Somalia.

The impact of small arms and light weapons (SALW) trafficking on civilian populations has received increasing attention from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), academic institutions, national governments, and international organizations. Within the last 10 years it has been internationally recognized that the proliferation of SALW to areas of civil conflict has led to what the Red Cross describes as “appalling levels of wanton violence.” Concurrent with the increased focus on the destructiveness of SALW is the realization that present national and international import/export regulatory systems are inadequate to meet the challenge of controlling the proliferation of these weapons. Needed in this area of study is more specific information and policy guidance regarding the best methods and practices for implementing effective SALW trafficking controls. In response to the international SALW trafficking problem, this article provides a comprehensive framework to assess the development and operation of international small arms control regimes. It uses the U.S. export control regime as a case study to document, assess, and benchmark how import/export control systems can be optimally employed to control the international SALW trade.

BackgroundA Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs) facilitate and prolong violence, which has enormous public health consequences. This study describes the prevalence, types, risk factors of and outcomes of SALW...

There is no doubt that there is proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs) in Africa, which is attributable to various factors such as increased incidents of armed robbery, activities of militants, religious and ethnic fundamentalism, among others. Widespread possession of arms had led to general insecurity in Africa. The evidence from Nigeria, which is adopted as a case study for this chapter, shows that heightened strife in the country represents a whopping 7.5 per cent of Africa’s illegal arms and 70 per cent of the West African sub-region’s SALWs, 90 per cent of which are in the hands of non-state actors. However, the situation only promises to grow worse with the influx of weapons from the residue of the conflicts in Libya and Mali. The chapter undertakes an analysis of arms control legislation in Nigeria, by illuminating their substance, application and challenges. Some of the legislation are: the Firearms Act, Terrorism (Prevention) Act 2011, Criminal Code Act, and Robbery and Firearms (Special Provisions) Act. As a subsidiary to national legislation and institution-building for arms control, the chapter also takes stock of the regional and continental protocols for arms control. The chapter reveals that municipal legislation is limited by local politics—for instance, the failure of Nigeria’s National Assembly to pass the National Commission against the Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons Bill has hampered the arms control regimen in the country. Similarly, a bill to amend the archaic 1959 Firearms Act that regulates the use of firearms in the country has been at the National Assembly without passage. The chapter recommends strengthening community policing in all states to complement the Nigeria Police Force in combating the proliferation of illicit sale of light arms and small weapons in communities; partnership with local manufacturers and providing alternative trade craft as well as building synergy with security agencies and the community to curb illicit SALWs; the political will on the part of the government to increase security at all borders and sea ports to put an end to illicit SALWs, provide support and training for security operatives. The chapter concludes that proliferation of arms poses serious threats to Nigeria’s fledgling democracy, undermines her security and stability, sustainable development and the rule of law. Curbing this menace demands not only legislation and law enforcement but creativity, tact, public education, commitment and high motivation on the part of law enforcement personnel as well as proper funding.

Compared to nuclear weapons, chemical and biological weapons or advanced conventional weapons systems, such as missiles, small arms and light weapons (SALW) and the ammunition required to render them lethal, have received less attention from arms control analysts. Accordingly the focus of this commentary is upon two particular inadequacies identified within the existing SALW restraint repertoire. They include, first, a failure to have SALW ammunition designated as an objective deserving explicit restraint designation and, secondly, persisting and largely unresolved state differences over controlling supplies of this weaponry to armed non-state actors. Both concerns illustrate how a use of consensus procedures within relevant rule formulation has favoured the interests of major SALW suppliers. The two deficiencies identified are considered destabilising given their continued capacity to degrade restraints designed to restrict deployments of this long-lasting weaponry—particularly within locations exhibiting limited forms of state capacity. The scope for existing legal mechanisms to remedy these deficiencies is examined, as is their potential to induce enhanced compliance and implementation.

The proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs) is a major national security challenge in Nigeria. The insecurity resulting from insurgency, banditry, militancy, kidnapping, armed robbery, ethno-religious and communal conflicts have become worrisome in Nigeria. All this, are perpetrated with small arms and light weapons, which are easily concealed and used to unleash violence in the society. There is hardly any week that passes by, without a report of one attack or the other somewhere in Nigeria. Adamawa state is not different as security challenges perpetrated with SALWs have destroyed lives and properties, and displaced a lot of people many of whom are farmers thereby, threatening food security. Again, Boko-Haram insurgency has over the years increased the availability of SALWs in the state. Porosity of Nigerian borders in Adamawa state axis has equally made it much easier for criminals to smuggle in SALWs into the state from neighboring Cameroon. The security agencies that are saddled with the responsibility to check this are complicit, as the bad ones facilitate the smuggling or are themselves sources of SALWs. Today, there is mutual distrust and deep seated grievances among the various ethnic groups co-habiting the state due to injustice. The deep seated grievances have made groups to acquire SALWs for self-help and retaliation. Furthermore, suspicion is commonplace and many people have lost trust and faith in the security architecture of the state government. Thus, people have resorted to the acquisition of SALWs for self-defense. Above all, politicians procure arms for the youths during elections. These arms are never returned as they are used to make ends meet due to poverty and unemployment ravaging the country. It is within the context of this broad narrative that the proliferation of SALWs is situated in Adamawa state nay Nigeria. Therefore, to check this menace, there is need to rejig the security architecture of Adamawa state and indeed Nigeria. Border security must be strengthened through cross-border security arrangement with Nigeria neighbors. The culture of violence in politics must be de-emphasized and the premium attached to political office should be reduced. Poverty and unemployment should be reduced and Justice should be served to all who deserve it. Finally, mutual trust should be encouraged by the government to foster inter-ethnic and religious co-existence and harmony among the diverse people in the state.

In April 2002, the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) Regional Centre for Combating Trans-border Crime established a sub-group within its Anti-Terrorism Task Force to “prevent, detect, trace, investigate, and suppress illicit trafficking in small arms and light weapons (SALW) by establishing direct, sustainable, and rapid channels of information exchange.” This sub-group consists of a network of police and customs officers from South Eastern Europe (SEE), who share intelligence on illicit SALW seizures. Saferworld, an independent NGO based in the U.K. that works to prevent armed violence around the world, has highlighted the work of the SECI Centre’s SALW Task Force as an example of good practice in regional cooperation for combating trafficking in SALW. As the lead state in this initiative, Albania proposed setting up an international operational intelligence information exchange on seizures of illicit small arms in 2002, and nominated the SECI Centre as an operational coordination unit. This proposal matured into the SALW seizure information exchange, known as Operation Ploughshares, which was launched in November 2002 and ran for six months. The primary objective of the information exchange was the collection of data that could be analyzed to give an account of the scope and dynamics of illicit SALW trafficking in the region. The following five SECI states actively participated in Operation Ploughshares: Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia/FYROM, Moldova, and Turkey. According to an analysis report on Operation Ploughshares, written by the U.K.’s National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS), data on trafficking of 493 small arms, just under twenty thousand rounds of ammunition, more than fifty mines, and several kilograms of explosives were exchanged during the operation. However, the report concluded that the information was “too scant to allow meaningful analysis,” and recommended that future information exchange exercises should endeavor to include information on: • Seizure localities