Evaluating the quantitative and qualitative contribution of zoos and aquaria to peer-reviewed science

Stratégies villageoises pour la gestion des paysages forestiers du Menabe Central, Madagascar

Urbanisation is increasing worldwide and regarded a main driver of environmental change. Urban development and associated factors like increased spatial isolation, reduced habitat size and various types of disturbances can alter the dynamics of plant and animal populations in the remaining green areas. Furthermore, changes in abiotic site conditions (e.g. temperature, moisture content) can influence habitat quality and, consequently, the species richness, species composition and functional diversity of plants and animals, which in turn can affect the functioning of ecosystems. Nonetheless, urban areas can harbour a remarkably high species richness and can be of high conservation value by serving as a refugia for many rare and threatened species. It is, therefore, of central importance in conservation biology to disentangle the various drivers of biodiversity in urban landscapes. Within the scope of this thesis, three studies were conducted to examine the consequences of urbanisation on the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning of green areas in the urban region of Basel, Switzerland.
\nThe aim of the first study was to assess the impacts of habitat size and landscape composition of the closer surroundings on the species diversity of three taxonomic groups differing in trophic rank (vascular plants, Orthoptera and Lepidoptera) in meadows and ruderal sites. I also related the response of three traits (body size, dispersal ability and food specialisation) to habitat size in Orthoptera and Lepidoptera. For this purpose, I analysed data of species from the natural heritage inventory of Basel. I found that the response of different groups of species considerably varied depending on the habitat type, taxonomic group and species trait examined. The species richness of Orthoptera and Lepidoptera was positively related to meadow size but not to the size of ruderal sites, while the opposite was true for plants. For Lepidoptera in ruderal sites, the percentage of ruderal sites in the closer surroundings was a better predictor of species richness than habitat size per se.
\nForests belong to the most frequent green areas in urban landscapes and provide a wide range of ecosystem functions and thus play a major role for human well-being in cities. The aim of the second study was to examine the potential effects of degree of urbanisation, forest size and the corresponding interaction on the species diversity and functional diversity of vascular plants, ants and spiders. The two arthropod groups do not show species-specific mutualistic or exploitative relationships with plants in contrast to those in the first study. I conducted vegetation surveys and pitfall trapping to sample soil surface-active ants and spiders. In plants, species richness decreased with the degree of urbanisation. Ants and spiders at higher trophic rank showed more pronounced shifts in species composition with increasing degree of urbanisation, while the percentage of forest specialists in both arthropod groups was positively related to forest size. Local site characteristics were also important determinants for species diversity and functional diversity. 
\nIn forests, the decomposition of leaf litter is an important component of the process of nutrient cycling and the formation of soil. In this way, litter decomposition contributes to the maintenance of several other ecosystem functions and services. The third study aimed to investigate the effects of urbanisation on leaf litter decomposition process in forests. Standardised litter of Fagus sylvatica leaves was used to assess the impact of urbanisation-related factors on the early stage of decomposition and seasonal microbial activity. I found combined effects of degree of urbanisation and forest size on the decomposition rate of leaf litter (klitter) indicating that forests of similar size differed in abiotic and biotic forest characteristics depending on the degree of urbanisation in the closer surroundings. Furthermore, moisture content of litter was the best predictor of microbial activity, followed by forest size.
\nThe findings of this thesis highlight the necessity to consider different taxonomic groups and functional groups in urban planning to maximise conservation value of urban green areas. In addition to degree of urbanisation, also habitat size was important for the diversity of some groups and leaf litter decomposition process in forests. It was also encouraging to find that even small green sites have the potential to make a significant contribution to biodiversity conservation and essential ecosystem functions in urban landscapes. I recommend that urban planners develop more flexible management strategies to satisfy the different requirements of various groups of species in the corresponding habitat type. Locally adapted management practices may provide a way forward to enhance habitat quality in a way to maximise species diversity and thus ensure the functioning of ecosystems; albeit large-scale factors also remain important.
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Mugica de la Guerra, M., Montes, C., Mata Olmo, R., Castell Puig, C. 2020. Protected areas as tools to strengthen the connections between science, management and society. Ecosistemas 29(1):1904. https://doi.org/10.7818/ECOS.1904 Protected areas are the most tried and tested tools for biodiversity conservation, although biodiversity continues to decline worldwide. Their original concept has evolved to incorporate territorial, social and economic aspects into the original conservation objectives. Global change is accelerating the need for a more holistic and innovative approach to their planning and management. The transfer of scientific knowledge to decision making and the involvement of society are crucial. This article reviews the current needs to improve the multiple objectives of protected areas taking as a framework the "Society and Protected Areas Programme: protected areas for human well-being" promoted by EUROPARC-Spain and the Fernando Gonzalez Bernaldez Foundation. The eight strategic lines in which this Program is developed (Integration of protected areas in the territory. Ecosystem services for human well-being. Transfer of scientific knowledge to management. Strategic communication to increase social and political support. Diversification of governance models. Diversification of financing models. Greening of sectoral policies. Global responsibility and international cooperation) have as a link of union the territorial integration without which the functions of conservation of the intrinsic values of nature are very difficult to achieve. Proposals are made to improve the interrelationship between interdisciplinary scientific knowledge, the management of protected areas and social involvement.

The main reason for hunting in tropical forests is because wildlife is the most accessible animal protein especially for those in rural areas. Little appears in the scientific literature about the importance of wildlife in West Papua with the exception of some information on the traditional uses of wildlife and its contribution to household diets. Different major drivers of hunting were identified, and in West Papua, there is an urgent need to address factors that increase pressure on hunting, including access to forest sites, increases in human population and available alternative protein sources. Using data from 1020 hunters from 11 villages interviewed between June 2011 and July 2013, this thesis explores indigenous hunting practices in the context of village livelihoods. Information on the distances that hunters travel and hunting offtakes during 387 hunting excursions, combined with offtakes from 33 hunters over seven months provides details of hunting effort and strategies and the socio-economic factors influencing hunting. A survey of meals in 696 households also provides in-depth information on consumption patterns, in particular of wild meat. As well as being important in providing food, road-side hunting was conducted for cash income. Hunters are also involved in trapping to maximise harvest rates from particular prey such as deer and pig for trading purposes. Although roads increase wild meat trading, road connection provides more options to find meals for household consumption and decreases the reliance on wild meat as a protein source for family tables. Increased human population growth increases people's reliance on agriculture. The production of crop lands (tuber crops and bananas) satisfies people's needs for carbohydrates, but not for animal protein. In villages with larger populations, hunting was mostly performed for family consumption. I hypothesised that marine protected areas (MPAs) would reduce the supply of fish in some villages. Alternatively, agriculture and might be a more important livelihood than fishing regardless of the MPA. For many rural households along the coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula wild meat is not a luxury or resource they only turn to in times of hardship; it is a vital source of animal protein, and a commodity that can be sold. This study is the first detailed investigation of how road development, increased human population and availability of alternative protein sources affect indigenous hunting along the coastal landscape. It shows that road connections shift livelihood options from subsistence-based to market-based, influencing hunting of introduced species for alternative income and provides more access to alternatives. Population density impacts on hunter's livelihoods, shifting intermittently between formal and informal occupations for cash to supplement crop-related incomes. Availability, or not, of alternative protein sources such as marine resources, did not appear to significantly affect hunting practices along the coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula. From a practical standpoint, policy to tackle reliance on wild meat in this context will require several strategies in tandem, such as: providing alternative livelihoods for revenue; improving agricultural infrastructure; offering economic opportunities and employment; and educating hunters and buyers.

This project started in October 2015 with a crazy idea : prepare and submit a funding application for an international, multidisciplinary and non-traditional scientific outreach project… within the next 48 hours. Well, it worked out. A group of highly motivated young researchers from Canada and Europe united to combine arts and science and produce a series of outreach comic strips about permafrost (frozen ground). The aim of the project is to present and explain scientific research conducted across the circumpolar Arctic, placing emphasis on field work and the rapidly changing northern environment. The target audience is kids, youth, parents and teachers, with the general goal of making permafrost science more fun and accessible to the public. Because guess what : permafrost represents an area of more than twenty million km2 in the Northern Hemisphere, a huge area. As the climate warms, permafrost thaws and becomes unstable for houses, roads and airports. This rapid thawing of previously frozen ground also disrupts plant and animal habitats, impacts water quality and the ecology of lakes, and releases carbon into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases, making climate change even stronger. Hence permafrost and its response to climate change concerns us all. The project received initial support from the International Permafrost Association (IPA) as a targeted ‘Action Group’, and since then several other sponsors have joined the project. Here we are, now, two years after this first idea. What you are about to read is the result of an iterative process of exchanging ideas between artists and scientists. We first made an application call and received 49 applications from artists in 16 countries. Through a formal review process, we then selected two artists to work on this project: Noémie Ross from Canada, and Heta Nääs from Finland. With input from scientists, Noémie and Heta created fantastic cartoons that explain some of the changes happening to the environment in permafrost areas, how they affect people and wildlife, and what scientists are doing to better understand these changes to help people find innovative ways to adapt. We wish everyone plenty of fun reading this booklet and we would like to thank all those who supported this project.

This project started in October 2015 with a crazy idea : prepare and submit a funding application for an international, multidisciplinary and non-traditional scientific outreach project… within the next 48 hours. Well, it worked out. A group of highly motivated young researchers from Canada and Europe united to combine arts and science and produce a series of outreach comic strips about permafrost (frozen ground). The aim of the project is to present and explain scientific research conducted across the circumpolar Arctic, placing emphasis on field work and the rapidly changing northern environment. The target audience is kids, youth, parents and teachers, with the general goal of making permafrost science more fun and accessible to the public. Because guess what : permafrost represents an area of more than twenty million km2 in the Northern Hemisphere, a huge area. As the climate warms, permafrost thaws and becomes unstable for houses, roads and airports. This rapid thawing of previously frozen ground also disrupts plant and animal habitats, impacts water quality and the ecology of lakes, and releases carbon into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases, making climate change even stronger. Hence permafrost and its response to climate change concerns us all. The project received initial support from the International Permafrost Association (IPA) as a targeted ‘Action Group’, and since then several other sponsors have joined the project. Here we are, now, two years after this first idea. What you are about to read is the result of an iterative process of exchanging ideas between artists and scientists. We first made an application call and received 49 applications from artists in 16 countries. Through a formal review process, we then selected two artists to work on this project: Noémie Ross from Canada, and Heta Nääs from Finland. With input from scientists, Noémie and Heta created fantastic cartoons that explain some of the changes happening to the environment in permafrost areas, how they affect people and wildlife, and what scientists are doing to better understand these changes to help people find innovative ways to adapt. We wish everyone plenty of fun reading this booklet and we would like to thank all those who supported this project.

This work aims to justify the potential for biodiversity conservation in moderately exploited lands that are characterized by a low degree of technogenic transformation and occupy an intermediate position between natural and artificial ecosystems due to their ecological features. Ecosystems of such kind can be referred to as quasi-natural. In this study focus is made on the most typical objects in this respect - multipurpose ponds and protective forest belts in Ukraine. Conventional ecological methods were used for accounting for the composition of the communities and assessing their productivity. The general species richness and diversity of groups in communities of quasi-natural ecosystems, as a rule, reach high values, than in their surroundings. In the survey of 30 pond-fish farming areas in the forest-steppe zone of Ukraine, 150 species of vertebrate animals (except fish) were found there, of which more than 90 are listed as protected. Forest shelterbelts of the steppe zone of Ukraine are the habitat of 584 species of beetles, and in forest-steppe protective forest belts there can be found up to 30 protected plant and animal species per hectare of stand. Arable land, pastures and haymaking steppe areas of southern Ukraine support rare bird species, of which 10 are listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. Therefore the considered quasi-natural ecosystems undoubtedly play a significant role in the conservation of wildlife and there is a need to provide opportunities for comprehensive implementation and enhancement of their conservation potential.

Bushmeat hunting and consumption, which involves utilising wild animals for food, is a key challenge for conservation. These practices, if undertaken unsustainably, can result in the generalised decline of wild animals, and consequently have large ecological effects such as trophic cascades and loss of ecosystem services. However, bushmeat also provides an important source of both protein and income to millions of people around the world. Therefore, managing these practices is extremely challenging, given the multiple (and often contradictory) perspectives and motivations of different stakeholders. The majority of research, policy and public attention on this issue has focussed on tropical forests, despite increasing evidence that bushmeat hunting and consumption pose a substantial threat to wildlife in other ecosystems as well, including savannahs. Key gaps in knowledge exist in regions outside of the tropical forests of Africa, including a lack of robust estimates of prevalence, a detailed understanding of drivers and motivations, and an understanding of which interventions to implement to reduce illegal hunting and consumption to sustainable levels. Decision-making in these contexts is also challenging, given limited information and the complexity of the social-ecological systems. Without adequate scientific evidence, it is difficult to achieve conservation outcomes while also ensuring that communities are able to benefit from wildlife. This thesis seeks to reduce these gaps in knowledge. To begin, I synthesise the current scientific knowledge about bushmeat hunting and consumption outside of tropical forests, with the aim of identifying key geographic and conceptual gaps in research. The systematic review in Chapter 2 outlined that, despite increasing attention on this issue in recent years, there was a lack of scientific research in the southern and North African savannah regions. Additionally, information regarding the drivers of both hunting and consumption was scarce or contradictory, and that studies which investigated the effect of interventions were especially lacking. This thesis then provides an in-depth case study of the southern African country of Malawi, to expand the knowledge base regarding bushmeat hunting in areas outside of tropical forest regions. Chapters 3 and 4 explore the prevalence, drivers and motivations of bushmeat hunters and consumers at four protected areas in Malawi, and seek to understand which interventions may work best to reduce these activities. Incorporating this information in a decision-making context is, however, vital to achieve progress, and in Chapter 5 I undertake a participatory modelling process to explore the knowledge of conservation experts, and facilitate social learning. Generating robust estimates of prevalence of illegal or illicit activities is challenging, and Chapter 3 illustrates the utility of using methods drawn from social science to understand what proportion of households hunt and consume bushmeat. I find that bushmeat hunting and consumption both exist at relatively high levels in communities, and that the drivers of hunting differ from those of consumption. This study also illustrates the motivations for hunting and consumption, which show a mixture of economic, social and cultural rationales. The next stage of the process investigates a range of interventions that may change the behaviours of hunters and consumers, and cause a substitution of unsustainable livelihood choices with others. Chapter 4 shows that interventions that rely on harvesting of natural resources, a strategy currently favoured by conservation authorities, is not preferred and may not cause these behavioural substitutions. Interventions that provide long-term empowerment opportunities may, however, achieve conservation goals and be acceptable to communities. Finally, to facilitate decision-makers’ understanding of these complex systems, I undertook a two-stage process in Chapter 5 to explore both individual and group knowledge of bushmeat hunting and consumption. This process highlighted assumptions and areas for further research, as well as explored the potential impact of certain interventions on the system as a whole. Overall, this thesis furthers the understanding of bushmeat hunting and consumption in areas outside of tropical forests, and allows the identification of key actions to improve the management of these activities in Malawi. The information presented in this thesis highlights the contribution that bushmeat represents in terms of local livelihoods in Malawi, and that there is a clear need to create socially acceptable, legitimate interventions to complement enforcement. Such interventions need to be designed to recognise the differences between hunters and consumers of bushmeat, and incorporate knowledge from sectors outside of conservation, to ensure that both biodiversity and sustainable development objectives can be met.

This dataset is a shapefile representing the proportion of threatened endemic species (both plants and animals) in 247 countries along with associated environmental and socioeconomic drivers. The geographic coordinate system is World Geodetic System 1984 (EPSG: 4326). Information on a total of 65,125 endemic species including 27,294 globally threatened endemic species (55% threatened plant species, 45% threatened animal species) was extracted from the IUCN Red List. The categories of threatened species used in the analyses included vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN), critically endangered (CR), extinct in the wild (EW) and globally extinct (EX). We calculated the proportion of globally threatened endemic species among the total number of assessed endemic species per country (Chamberlain et al., 2020). Associated environmental socioeconomic regional correlates included: 1) Cropland: The proportion of each country covered by crops (including food, fibre and fodder crops and pasture grasses) was determined based on a FAO global map with a resolution of 5 arc-minutes (von Velthuizen et al., 2007); 2) HANPP: The proportion of net primary production appropriated by humans (HANPP) by harvesting or burning biomass and by converting natural ecosystems to managed lands with lower productivity was derived for the year 2010 from Krausmann et al. (2013); 3) Delta HANPP: We also computed the increase in HANPP over the period 1962-2010 (Krausmann et al., 2013); 4) per area GDP: The per area gross domestic product (GDP, in international $) was obtained by calculating the median value over each country of all 5 arcmin cells of a recently gridded GDP dataset (Kummu et al., 2018); 5) Human Footprint (HFP): The global terrestrial human footprint (HFP) is an index integrating the influence of built environments, population density, electric infrastructure, croplands, pasture lands, roads, railways, and navigable waterways on the environment based on remotely-sensed and bottom-up survey information (Venter et al., 2016). We extracted from a 1 km resolution HFP map the median value over each country in 2009; 6) Delta HFP: We also calculated the increase in median HFP over the period 1993-2009 (Venter et al., 2016); 7) Invasive alien plants: The richness of invasive alien vascular plant species recorded in each country was compiled by Essl et al. (2019); 8) Invasive alien animals: The richness of invasive alien animal species was derived from the Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species database (http://griis.org/ accessed on 27-6-2018); 9) Delta temperature: Based on decadal climate maps produced by the IPCC over the last century with a 0.5° resolution, we calculated the median of the change in annual mean temperature (in °C) between 1901-1910 and 1981-1990 (Mitchell & Jones, 2005); 10) Delta rainfall: The same for annual precipitation (in mm); 11) Velocity temperature: We also calculated the median velocity of climate change based on the formula from Hamann et al. (2015) to evaluate the distance (in °) over which a species must migrate over the surface of the earth to maintain constant temperature conditions; 12) Velocity rainfall: The same for precipitation; 13) Roadless areas: The median area of a roadless fragment (in km²) was calculated from the global map of roadless areas published by Ibisch et al. (2016); 14) Wilderness areas: The proportion of wildlands (categories ‘wild woodlands’ and ‘wild treeless and barren lands’) was calculated from the anthropogenic biome map of Ellis et al. (2010); 15) Protected areas: The proportion of protected areas was estimated from the IUCN’s shapefile of World Database on Protected Areas (https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/our-work/world-database-protected-areas); 16) Conservation spending: The mean annual conservation spending of each country (in international $) was taken from Waldron et al. (2017) to quantify investment to mitigate biodiversity loss; 17) Completeness of biodiversity information: We used data on the estimated percentage completeness of species records in GBIF, as assessed through comparison with independent estimates of native richness. Inventory effort indices available for vertebrates (Meyer et al., 2015) and vascular plants (Meyer et al., 2016) were merged into a single metric based upon an average weighted by estimated native species richness.

Research problem: “A comparative study to assess the knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults residing in selected urban and rural areas of district Sangrur, Punjab” Background of the study: A sound mental health is the key component of health. Absence of mental health could create a great deal of burden to the functioning of a nation. Mental illness is an age-old problem of humankind as documented in the literature of the oldest civilizations the world over. The public view towards mental illness has been considered as negative, stigmatized, uninformed and fearful entity right from the ancient time till date which varies according to age, race, ethnicity, religion, culture, tradition, and education of the different community. Aim of the study: The aim of the study to compare the knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults residing in selected urban and rural areas. Objectives of the Study: 1. To assess the knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults residing in selected urban and rural areas of district Sangrur, Punjab. 2. To compare the knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults residing in selected urban and rural areas of district Sangrur, Punjab. 3. To determine the co-relation between knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults residing in selected urban and rural areas of district Sangrur, Punjab. 4. To determine the association between knowledge and attitude regarding mental illness among adults and selected socio- demographic variables. Methodology: A comparative research design was adopted on 100 adults residing in selected urban and rural areas by using convenient sampling technique. A self administered structured knowledge questionnaire and Likert’s scale were used to assess the knowledge and attitude respectively. The analysis of data was computed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. Result: The majority of adults residing in selected urban and rural areas has average knowledge score i.e. 32 (64%) and 31 (62%), regarding mental illness respectively. In urban area adults have neutral attitude i.e. 27 (54%) and rural area adults have positive attitude i.e. 29 (58%) regarding mental illness. There was no significant comparison between knowledge and attitude scores and adults residing in selected urban and rural areas. There was significant association between knowledge score with educational qualification of adult’s residing in urban area and educational qualification & monthly income of adult’s residing in rural area. There was no significant association except educational qualification and monthly income values indicated significant association between attitude scores of adults residing in urban area. In rural area there was significant association except occupation and monthly income values indicated no significant association between attitude scores of adults regarding mental illness. Conclusion: It was concluded that adults have good knowledge and positive attitude regarding mental illness in both urban and rural areas. Thus, present study suggested that there was growing awareness about mental illness in general population.

Manupeu Tanadaru forest block was designated as National Park based on Ministry of Forestry and Plantation Decree No.576/Kpts-II/1998. The designation has not been followed by boundary demarcation and a proper management plan. There is a different perception between government and community on the existence of the national park that has led to a conflict between forest protection and biodiversity conservation with community livelihood. The objective of this research is to develop zoning system of Manupeu Tanadaru National Park based on area sensitivity and community activities. Area sensitivity was defined based on biological and physical condition analysis, consists of erosion area analysis, water catchments area analysis and wildlife protection area analysis. Community activities was defined based on type and distribution of local community activities inside the national park. Result of this research show that about 52.89% of the national park was area with high to very high sensitivity level that should be allocated as “Wilderness Zone and Core Zone”. About 12.36% of the national park is used by local community for agriculture, non timber forest product, sacred place and water resource for subsistence needs in area with low to middle sensitivity level that should be allocated as “Traditional Zone and Other Use Zone”. Key words: national park, area sensitivity, community activities, zoning system

This study was carried out to gain data on animal species and their subtances/derivatives believed had medicinal properties that were utilized and traded by local people around Betung Kerihun National Park (BKNP). The study was conducted at the 12 villages around area of BKNP. Snowball method was used to determine respondents. There were 32 respondens interviewed. The data obtained was analysed by using descriptive quantitatively method. The study showed that there were 39 animal species and 19 animal substances/derivatives that utilized as medicinal purposes by local people around BKNP. There were also 9 animal species and 4 animal subtances/derivatives traded by those peoples. Local peopl’s perspectives on animal utilization had been changed from nature to economic orientation. Law enforcement, giving conservation education, involving local peoples on biodiversity conservation management, and introducing captive breeding program to local communities are needed to raise the understanding and awareness of the importance of habitat and animal species conservation in BKNP. Key word: Medicinal Animal, subtances/derivatives, medicinal purposes, utilization, trade, conservation.

O crescimento urbano tem alterado cada vez mais às características naturais dos ecossistemas em áreas povoadas, resultando na redução de áreas naturais e de biodiversidade. Para minimizar os impactos negativos da expansão urbana são criadas as áreas verdes e áreas protegidas. Neste contexto, este estudo objetivou analisar a importância do verde urbano existente na área urbana do município de João Pessoa, Paraíba, para a conservação da biodiversidade em um aglomerado populacional. O método consistiu na pesquisa exploratória e explicativa, com levantamento bibliográfico do acevo público e trabalho de campo em áreas verdes, parques, praças, remanescentes florestais, áreas de preservação e Unidades de Conservação. Foram identificadas 85 espécies arbóreas e palmeiras de 34 famílias diferentes, onde sete foram enquadradas em perigo de extinção. Também foram identificadas 36 espécies de aves, nove de répteis e oito mamíferos. Constatou-se uma interação entre grupos específicos da fauna com espécies da flora. O verde urbano de João Pessoa contribui para a conservação da flora nativa e espécies ameaçadas de extinção; existem grupos de aves, mamíferos e répteis utilizando o verde urbano para alimentação, abrigo ou alimentação, e; o município apresenta uma diversidade de espécies relevantes, mesmo assim, há a necessidade de criar áreas protegidas.

This book is an effort to share our perspectives from five years of experience studying and teaching in Costa Rica through the intersections of geography, ecology, and political science. These reflect the dominant pedigrees of more than one-hundred students who annually spent five weeks in Huxley College of the Environment’s RICA program in Costa Rica. The RICA program was designed to foster global ecological citizenship through practices of democratic ecology that activate learner awareness and efficacy among undergraduate participants, Costa Rican students from local schools, and community members. In the 2011 field season, faculty and twenty-one students conducted observational studies of tree diversity, soil composition, avian bioacoustics, collaborative conservation management, and environmental education. Comparative observations were made at biological stations in Carara and Corcovado National Park in collaboration with Park staff. We hypothesized that significant contrasts will occur between the secondary forests of Carara and primary forests of Corcovado and their neighboring communities. Our results inform Costa Rican conservation and management strategies as well as contribute to the growing field of participatory ecological monitoring. Biodiversity conservation begins inside of Costa Rica’s protected areas but must be complemented by research, education and outreach in the communities outside of National Parks. Biodiversity conservation begins inside of Costa Rica’s protected areas but will be finished, for the good or the bad, outside of them. 2 Five Seasons in Ecotopia

In the Silesian rocks of the Central Pennine Basin three types of ancient delta sequence are recognized Each contributed to the progressive filling of the Basin and to the gradual development of fluvialparalic conditions in Westphalian time The turbidite fronted deltaof the lowest Namurian of the Pendleian Stage of theSkipton area in the north of the Basin shows three depth related sedimentary associations which correspond with overlapping but distinct trace fossil assemblages The Thrbidite Association contains a Rhizocorallium Planolites Bergaueria assemblage on thebase or top of thin bedded turbidites the Slope Association consists of Lophoctenium and Curvolithus in laminated sandstones and siltstones and the Delta Top Association is characterized only by Monocraterion Skolithos and Pelecypodichnus in parallel bedded and cross bedded sand stones The Thrbidite and Delta Slope Associations appear to belong to theZoophycos ichnofacies of Seilacher 1967 and the Delta Top to the Cruziana and Skolithos ichnofacies Deltaic deposition thus advanced into water afew hundreds of meters deep probably of nearly fully marine salinity Trace fossils of the deeper water Nereites ichnofacies are lacking Sedimentological factors such as energy level substrate and food supply rather than bathymetry alone may have influenced the distribution of trace fossils In the south of the Basin the later Lower Kinderscoutian delta is similar sedimentologically to that of the Pend1eian but is devoid of trace fossils except for Planolites and Pelecypodichnus assemblages in the upper part of the delta slope and on the delta top The absence of trace fossils with obvious marine affinities is consistent with the interpretation that in intervals between marine inundations basin water was less saline than it was in the Skipton area during Pendleian time During the Upper Kinderscoutian Marsdenian and Yeadonian stages the Central Pennine Basin was filled mainly from the north and east by shallow water sheet deltas and by two shallow waterelongate deltas from the west Trace fossils in the delta plain sediments contain assemblages which can be assigned to theCruziana or rarely Zoophycos ichnofacies together with a variety of facies crossing forms They show progressive colonization of the delta top paleoenvironments They also suggest evolution of certain animal groups during this time Thus bivalve escape shafts attributed to cf Sallguinolites a marine genus in the Upper Kinderscoutian show a steady increase in vertical extent or height throughout the period By late Marsdenian time they were evidently formed by the non marine genus Carbollicola On independent evidence Carbonicola appears to have evolved from the bivalves which made the earliest escape shafts Lower Westphalian sediments indicate a gradual increase upwards in fluvial and swamp dominance of theextensive delta top This is well substantiated by trace fossils as far as they have been studied They playa significant part in elucidating the general sedimentary environment for instance Pelecypodichllus escape shafts suggest seasonal flooding as a result of monsoonal condition in the west Lancashire coalfield Xiphosurid traces Kouphichnium and Limulicubiclmus which range from the Marsdenian upwards provide insights into the more ephemeral aspects of sedimentation and paleoenvironments Freshwater arthropod traces and vertebrate footprints Scoyenia ichnofacies are poorly known in theWestphalian of the Pennine area when compared with the roughly contemporary ichnofaunas of Nova Scotia Canada but such traces occur in the latest Silesian and early Permian rocks in other areas of Britain