Evaluating the impact of mega-sports events on tourism consumption using the synthetic control method: the case of 2014 Nanjing Youth Olympic Games

In the face of the challenges posed by global climate change, sustainable development has emerged as a crucial criterion to assess the success of hosting mega sporting events (MSEs). This study uses prefecture-level data from China and applies a synthetic control method (SCM) along with a difference-in-differences (DID) approach to empirically explore the influence and mechanisms of preparation for the 2023 Hangzhou Asian Games (HAG) on the carbon emission intensity (CEI) of host cities. Findings show that, first, HAG preparation significantly reduces the CEI of the host city, Hangzhou. However, the carbon emission reduction effect of HAG preparation varies across different co-host cities. Second, the mechanism exploration results indicate that HAG preparation facilitates urban low-carbon transitions through three pathways: increasing environmental regulation intensity, improving green technology innovation, and enhancing foreign direct investment. Thus, this study suggests that host countries or cities should advocate the concept of green and low-carbon games during MSE preparation to promote sustainable urban development.

In recent years, cities have shown an interest in using the hosting of sport mega-events as a leverageable resource in realizing long-term impacts for individual volunteers. However, previous research has provided limited evidence of the realization of anticipated impacts in the post-event period. This study focuses on the long-term impacts of Olympic and Youth Olympic volunteering in terms of memory, attitudes, and behaviors. Data were collected from a sample of 353 volunteers who have been involved with the 2008 Beijing Olympic and Paralympic Games, the 2010 Singapore Youth Olympic Games, and the 2014 Nanjing Youth Olympic Games. Results show that volunteers can easily access their Olympic and Youth Olympic memory, with vivid, emotional, and visual details, while the overall tone of their volunteer memory is positive over a long period. Volunteering at the Olympic and Youth Olympic Games can be understood as a positive life-changing event and participants have reported high scores on the attitudes in terms of the interest in the Olympic Movement. Findings reveal that the sharing of the memory by volunteers and the time perspective have been found to contribute significantly to broader impacts in terms of attitudes about the Olympic Movement and subsequent volunteer behaviors. Implications for sport mega-event volunteer management are discussed.

ObjectiveTo systematically review and synthesise the incidence and characteristics of injuries and illnesses among athletes participating in the Olympic, Youth Olympic and Paralympic Games.DesignSystematic review and meta-analysis.Data sourcesPubMed, Embase, CINAHL, Scopus and Web of Science were searched up to 2 July 2024, and Google Scholar, ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform up to 12 December 2023.Eligibility criteria for selecting studiesCohort studies conducted during the Games reporting injuries and illnesses among athletes. Risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tool for prevalence studies, and certainty of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation framework.Results27 articles were included (10 Olympic, 4 Youth Olympic and 13 Paralympic Games). 23 articles had low, 3 moderate and 1 high risk of bias. Certainty of evidence was high to moderate for Olympic, high to low for Youth Olympic and low for Paralympic Games. Injury incidences per 1000 athlete-days were 6.5 (95% CI 5.9 to 7.2) during Olympic, 10.5 (95% CI 9.4 to 11.8) during Youth Olympic and 14.3 (95% CI 9.9 to 20.7) during Paralympic Games. Illness incidences per 1000 athlete-days were 3.6 (95% CI 2.8 to 4.7), 6.9 (95% CI 6.1 to 7.8) and 9.7 (95% CI 6.5 to 14.4), respectively. Lower limb injuries were frequent during Olympic and Youth Olympic Games, upper limb injuries during Paralympic Games and respiratory illnesses across all Games cohorts.ConclusionsInjury and illness incidences were highest in Paralympic Games, followed by Youth Olympic and Olympic Games. Incidences and patterns of injury and illness were sport and context specific, which could inform future prevention strategies.PROSPERO registration numberCRD42023475334.

Local governments in China regularly implement short-term emission control measures to improve air quality during important sporting events. As a condition for hosting the 2014 Youth Olympic Games (YOG), the Nanjing government agreed to temporarily and substantially improve air quality. Regression analysis, Spearman correlation analysis, χ2 test, and the contingent valuation method were used to explore the effects of robust, short-term air pollution control measures on risk perception, daily exposure to PM2.5, risk acceptance levels, and willingness to pay/accept (WTP/WTA) for reductions in air pollution for the benefit of reducing health risks. Postimplementation, the respondents' risk perception levels presented the following changes: during the YOG, the respondents perceived the lowest effects of haze pollution while after the YOG, they perceived the highest effects. The changes in risk acceptance levels showed the same tendency. Furthermore, after the YOG, the respondents asked for the most economic compensation, and their willingness to pay for risk reduction also reached the highest level. This study reveals the need to increase the public's understanding of the health risks of air pollution, protect those populations most exposed to high levels of PM2.5, and take more effective long-term measures to meet local residents' demands for improved air quality.

Hailed as the flagship of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) strategy regarding young people, the organising of the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) was approved by the IOC in 2007 and Singapore was subsequently selected as the first host city for the summer YOG. Although the YOG is going to be the first new event the IOC has staged since the 1924 winter Olympic Games, its novelty may not be as radical as first impressions may suggest. This paper charts the chronological development of the YOG through a broad overview of little-known Youth Olympic Festivals, which the YOG is reported to be modelled after, and traces the political/economical/ideological contexts for the conception of the YOG. Despite being the latest addition to the Olympics family, the YOG is not spared from conflicts and tensions which inundated the Olympic Games. This paper aims to exemplify the range of debates presented by the launch of the YOG and contribute to the literature examining the opportunities and challenges presented by the launch of the YOG.

Despite growing research on the impacts of mega-sports events, comparative studies of the value perceptions of residents in host and non-host cities are rare. Residents’ perceptions are effective indicators of their behavioral intentions, which are crucial for the success of events and for the place marketing of hosting cities. To fill this gap, this study constructed a model linking residents’ expected impacts, perceived value and behavioral intentions for mega-sports events. Informed by Social Exchange Theory, this study employed Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze 1527 valid questionnaires collected in mainland China (412 in host cities, 1115 in non-host cities). The results reveal that non-host-city residents have more substantial expectations of impacts, perceptions of value, and behavioral intentions than host-city residents. Residents in Northeast China had the highest perceptions and behavioral intentions toward the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics, implying that the geographical location of the non-host cities is an influencing factor. Researchers and practitioners should pay attention to those differences in research design and event planning to promote the sustainable development of mega-sports events.

The positive impact of hosting large-scale sports events on tourism is examined in this study, focusing on the 16th Asian Games as the research subject. The Difference-in-Difference Method and Synthetic Control Method are employed to analyze the event’s influence on tourism in Guangzhou and other cities within Guangdong Province. The findings demonstrate a significant driving effect of such events on the growth of tourism in host cities over subsequent years. Moreover, it is revealed that the 16th Asian Games has a particularly pronounced impact on remote cities located far from Guangzhou, including those situated in the eastern, western, and northern regions of Guangdong Province. Consequently, this study suggests that host cities should seize opportunities by engaging in scientific planning and meticulous arrangements for large-scale events. Additionally, other cities within the province where these events take place should actively participate in enhancing their ability to serve such occasions while improving both the level and quality of their tourism services. This approach will enable them to capitalize effectively on hosting opportunities and facilitate high-quality development across all parts of the province.

Impacts of a mega sporting event on local carbon emissions: A case of the 2014 Nanjing Youth Olympics

I n August 2011 organisers of the London 2012 Olympics staged rehearsals for the Opening Ceremony due to commence exactly one year hence. Meanwhile, other parts of the city were experiencing rioting and looting on a scale not seen for 30 years. Whilst these two events were largely distinct, their simultaneous occurrence underscored an important point. For all the attention to the enclosure, artificial urbanism and contrived spaces that hosting sporting mega events create, they are accommodated in complex and often contested urban settings. Two years later, the links between the politics of the street and the sporting mega-event spectacle became cemented elsewhere. Echoing protests against Mexico City’s profligate Olympic spending at a time of austerity in 1968, June 2013 saw more than a million people take to the streets across 100 Brazilian cities. Although activist causes were manifold they unmistakably coalesced around the social and pecuniary impacts of Brazil’s staging of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games. As mega-event spectacles, replete with promises of ‘regeneration’ and ‘legacy’, continue to encroach further into the urban realm, so different levels of action, activism, governance and policy necessarily become drawn together. For sporting mega-events, it is in the realm of security practice where the heat generated by internationally focused agendas abrading with local practices, processes and priorities is greatest. Here, the promise of stringent security guarantees is a precondition for hosts who operate under a constant risk of catastrophic reputational damage should they not be met. Of course, it is rare that, in such a broad sense, ‘security’ can ever be guaranteed and, for planners, its pursuit results in dwindling levels of acceptable risk. When applied to the complex, dynamic and unpredictable realm of the global city, the contemporary stage for sporting mega events, such promises are even harder to keep. The result is uneasy coalitions of international, national, regional and local security practice; a merger of civil, military and criminal justice techniques and technologies of social control; and a proliferation of security priorities. Yet whilst some of these measures may be exceptional for the cities that host them, they often represent very familiar elements of mega-event security programmes.

Abstract. As the holding city of the 2nd Youth Olympic Games (YOG), Nanjing is highly industrialized and urbanized, and faces several air pollution issues. In order to ensure better air quality during the event, the local government took great efforts to control the emissions from pollutant sources. However, air quality can still be affected by synoptic weather, not only emission. In this paper, the influences of meteorological factors and emission reductions were investigated using observational data and numerical simulations with WRF–CMAQ (Weather Research and Forecasting – Community Multiscale Air Quality). During the month in which the YOG were held (August 2014), the observed hourly mean concentrations of SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, CO and O3 were 11.6 µg m−3, 34.0 µg m−3, 57.8 µg m−3, 39.4 µg m−3, 0.9 mg m−3 and 38.8 µg m−3, respectively, which were below China National Ambient Air Quality Standard (level 2). However, model simulation showed that the weather conditions, such as weaker winds during the YOG, were adverse for better air quality and could increase SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5 and CO by 17.5, 16.9, 18.5, 18.8, 7.8 and 0.8 %. Taking account of local emission abatement only, the simulated SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5 and CO decreased by 24.6, 12.1, 15.1, 8.1 and 7.2 %. Consequently, stringent emission control measures can reduce the concentrations of air pollutants in the short term, and emission reduction is very important for air quality improvement during the YOG. A good example has been set for air quality protection for important social events.

With the adoption of the concept of sustainable development, mega sports events (MSEs) are gradually aiming to be greener and to lower their carbon footprints. As such, does the hosting of MSEs provide an opportunity for urban green transformation? Taking MSEs in China as a quasi-natural experiment and using prefecture-level panel data from 2000 to 2020, we empirically explored the effects and mechanisms of MSE hosting on the green economic development in urban areas by applying a time-varying difference-in-differences (DID) approach. The findings revealed that the hosting of MSEs can significantly increase the green total factor productivity (GTFP) of the host city, indicating that MSEs promote the green transformation of urban areas. The results of the mechanism analysis showed that hosting MSEs promotes urban green transformation through three channels: encouraging residents to choose public transport, promoting the development of the digital economy, and upgrading of the industrial structure. In addition, the effect of hosting MSEs on green transformation is stronger in cities where the public is more concerned about the environment. We argue that host city governments should implement the concept of green sports when organizing MSEs, increase public concern about the environment, focus on the development of urban public services, and vigorously develop tertiary industries to drive urban green transformations.

The purpose of this study is to assess the status of Twitter usage on attracting the public’s attention with regard to the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) as compared to the Olympic Games (OG). Associated tweets were collected and analyzed to determine whether retweets, likes, and hashtags of tweets differed by event (YOG or OG), by event year (2010, 2012, 2014, and 2016), or by timeframe (before, during, and after the major sporting events). Using the Python programming language, this study extracted data (i.e., tweets, retweets, likes, and hashtags) during the three timeframes across the eight mega-sporting events. Findings from this study have implications for the analytical development of social media usage by sport organizations and provide a better understanding of social media platforms in the context of mega-sporting events.

The Youth Olympic Games (YOG) was an initiative launched by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2007 with adapted sports targeting young people between the ages of 14 and 18. Singapore was selected as the first host city for the Summer YOG in February 2008, with the inaugural event taking place from 14 to 26 August 2010. Through the YOG, the IOC aims to create an event for young people to participate in sport, to learn about Olympic education and to share experiences with their peers. To this end, a unique feature of the YOG is the inclusion of an extensive Culture and Education Programme (CEP) to introduce young people to Olympism and Olympic values of respect, excellence and friendship, alongside the sports element of the event. The decision to de-emphasise the competitive aspect of sport and to encompass a cultural- and educational-based component at the Games invited criticism from various corners of the Olympic Movement. This paper provides an overview of the YOG and its CEP. With the inaugural YOG brought to a close, the Games was declared a success ‘beyond expectation’ by the IOC President. This paper critically analyses the promises of the YOG CEP, focusing on the extent to which the CEP has met its intended goals. The evaluation offers possible implications for development of the CEP for future editions of the YOG.

Hosting Mega Sport Events (MSEs) is a formidable expedition that requires enormous investments and that has the potential to reform the nation’s future and create a lasting legacy. However, the increase in environmental concerns is pushing host cities to adopt a compact event approach. Compactness increases the concentration of the load on host cities’ infrastructures, which have to preserve an acceptable level of functionality under any possible disturbance; in other words, they should be resilient. Among these infrastructures, the road network plays the most prominent role in the fans’ experiences and the event’s success. To assess its resilience during MSE, we proposed a multilevel assessment approach that focuses on the network cohesion and critical trips performance under several disturbance scenarios, including natural hazards, intentional attacks, and accidents. The framework was applied to the Doha road network, since Doha will be a host city for the FIFA World Cup in Qatar in 2022, which exhibited a high level of resilience to intentional attacks and accidents scenarios. However, during the natural hazard scenario (flooding), the network experienced severe fragmentation, signaling weak resilience and highlighting the need to improve storm management plans. Future research could investigate the use of weighted graphs to increase the accuracy or incorporate different assessment approaches into the framework.

Estimating treatment (or policy or intervention) effects on a single individual or unit has become increasingly important in health and biomedical sciences. One method to estimate these effects is the synthetic control method, which constructs a synthetic control, a weighted average of control units that best matches the treated unit's pre-treatment outcomes and other relevant covariates. The intervention's impact is then estimated by comparing the post-intervention outcomes of the treated unit and its synthetic control, which serves as a proxy for the counterfactual outcome had the treated unit not experienced the intervention. The augmented synthetic control method, a recent adaptation of the synthetic control method, relaxes some of the synthetic control method's assumptions for broader applicability. While synthetic controls have been used in a variety of fields, their use in public health and biomedical research is more recent, and newer methods such as the augmented synthetic control method are underutilized. This paper briefly describes the synthetic control method and its application, explains the augmented synthetic control method and its differences from the synthetic control method, and estimates the effects of an antimalarial initiative in Mozambique using both the synthetic control method and the augmented synthetic control method to highlight the advantages of using the augmented synthetic control method to analyze the impact of interventions implemented in a single region.