Evaluating Community-Based Methods for Monitoring and Recording Human–Wildlife Conflicts in Namibia: Towards Emergent Approaches?

Human –wildlife conflicts (HWC) affect the social-economic aspects of millions of people across the world and is one of the most important challenges facing wildlife conservation. Long-term data collection provides an opportunity to critically understand HWC trends and enable wildlife stakeholders to create evidence-based solutions for co-existence of people and wildlife. We used Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) data for the 2010-2018 period to analyse trends in typology, seasonality and economic costs of HWC in Kajiado and Laikipia Counties in Kenya. A total of 953 HWC reported cases in the two counties were analysed. Wildlife threats to human life, crop damage and livestock predation were the common form of HWC, contributing 65.7% (n=626), 21.7% (n=207), and 7.7% (n=73) respectively. Apart from livestock predation (t=2.431; P=0.028) all other types of HWC did not show any significant differences in the two counties over the nine-year period. Elephants were responsible for the highest conflict cases (79%, n=753) followed by baboons (6.9%, n=66). Elephants contributed to the highest human fatality and injuries (43%, n=10); while snakes and buffalo were second, each contributing to 17% (n=4) of the total cases. Majority of the HWC occurred in the dry season months of July (n=114), January (n=99) and October (n=96). The overall trend indicated increasing HWC cases over the 9 years in both counties. The analysis of economic cost of HWC showed that a total of 64.09 hectares of crops were damaged in 2010-2018, with 70% of the cases reported in Kajiado County. In terms of predation, Kajiado lost livestock worth KES 1,785, 000 (U$ 16,780.53) while Laikipia lost KES 407,000 (U$ 3826.15). This study provides empirical evidence that can be used to develop strategies for mitigating HWC based on types, seasons and conflict species.

This study examines the influence of climatic and non-climatic factors on human- wildlife conflicts in Swagaswaga Game Reserve, Tanzania. A mixed research design employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods -- including semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews -- was used. Rainfall and temperature data for the past 30 years was obtained from the Tanzania Meteorological Authority. Quantitative data was analysed using IBM SPSS (V26), in which the Chi-square test was performed to test the association between predictors and the status of human-wildlife conflicts. A binary logistic regression model was used to determine the extent to which independent factors were associated with human-wildlife conflicts. Meteorological data on rainfall and temperature was analysed using Excel to perform a simple regression analysis. Qualitative data was analysed using the content analysis technique. The study revealed that both climatic and non-climatic factors influenced conflicts. As temperature increased significantly, evapotranspiration and scarcity of resources also increased, leading to a decline in crop yield, accelerated human-wildlife conflicts due to resource competition between wildlife and communities around protected areas. Rainfall distribution, onset, and cessation were unpredictable. Additionally, human-wildlife conflict is significantly associated with human population growth, while encroachment and reserve expansion influenced human-wildlife conflicts, though their impacts were not significant. Conclusively, climate change and rapid human population growth accelerated encroachment, causing wildlife survival threats and intensifying human-wildlife conflicts. The study recommends that the government should develop a comprehensive land use plan involving local communities in decision- making to adapt to the impacts of climate change on wildlife habitats and livelihoods.

Balanced site ecology and favorable socio-economic environment are pertinent to sustainable habitat development for wildlife conservation. The study investigated the causes, levels of livelihood, and levels of human-wildlife conflict and constraints of Idanre forest reserve. Reconnaissance survey was conducted prior data collection to be acquitted and gather information about the forest reserve. The field survey was conducted from October, 2018 to April, 2019 and adapted descriptive survey designs using randomized questionnaire sampling techniques in six selected communities around the boundary areas of the forest reserve. Analytical techniques were employed through random sampling techniques and data were analyzed through descriptive techniques to elicit variables contributing to human-wildlife conflict in the study area. The result showed that 86% of the respondents were illiterate, middle- aged, married, males Christians with an average of four (4) people per household. The study revealed that crops damage were mostly reported as evidence of destruction which lead to human wildlife conflict in a close distance village to the reserve (2-4km). The result revealed that 29.4% of respondents are majorly prone to human- wildlife conflict, 43.1% of respondent are moderately prone to human- wildlife conflict, while 27.5% of respondent are least prone to human-wildlife conflict (lives 5km to the site) due to level of population increase. It is evidence that few respondents had their farm destroyed by wild animals and conflicts arise is taken care off through the forest reserve management. It is suggested that more hands need to be employed for meaningful and effective monitoring of management activities along the boundary areas of the reserve to reduce conflict. Conversely, awareness campaign / advocacy program should be a watch word towards reducing or curbing human -wildlife conflict along the protected areas.

Purpose: The broad objective of the study was to assess the effect of Land Use Changes on Human Wildlife Conflict in Kajiado County, Kenya. The specific land use changes that was focused on comprised of settlement pattern changes and agricultural expansion. Methodology: The Land Tenure Theory and Habitat Suitability Theory anchored the study. The study used descriptive design targeting the local community representatives, farmers and pastoralists, wildlife rangers and officers, community leaders, Government and County Officials and Wildlife Conservation Organizations. In total, the target population comprised of 2419 respondents. A stratification of the population was done to enhance sampling while random sampling was applied to identify the specific respondents from ach stratum. A sample size of 343 respondents was determined using Cochran's formula. A combination of structured questionnaires and semi structured interview guides were employed to gather both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was analyzed using mean and standard deviation and Pearson Correlation Coefficient for inferential analysis. Qualitative data was analyzed using thematic analysis. The results of the analysis were displayed in form of tables and figures. Findings: The study established that land use changes comprising of settlement pattern changes and agricultural expansion positively and significantly affect human wildlife conflict in Kajiado County. This was depicted by beta values of 0.538 and 0.411. The study concluded that increase in the land use changes increases animal wildlife conflicts in Kajiado County. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study recommends regulating settlement patterns, and implementing wildlife friendly farming to minimize human wildlife conflicts in Kajiado County.

Human–wildlife conflict has emerged as the central vocabulary for cases requiring balance between resource demands of humans and wildlife. This phrase is problematic because, given traditional definitions of conflict, it positions wildlife as conscious human antagonists. We used content analysis of wildlife conservation publications and professional meeting presentations to explore the use of the phrase, human–wildlife conflict, and compared competing models explaining its usage. Of the 422 publications and presentations using human–wildlife conflict, only 1 reflected a traditional definition of conflict, >95% referred to reports of animal damage to entities human care about, and <4% referred to human–human conflict. Usage of human–wildlife conflict was related to species type (herbivores with human food, carnivores with human safety, meso‐mammals with property), development level of the nation where the study occurred (less developed nations with human food and more developed nations with human safety and property damage), and whether the study occurred on private lands or protected areas (protected areas with human–human conflict and other areas with property damage). We argue that the phrase, human–wildlife conflict, is detrimental to coexistence between humans and wildlife, and suggest comic reframing to facilitate a more productive interpretation of human–wildlife relationships.

Human–wildlife conflict is a serious challenge undermining the integrity of protected areas in developing countries. Developing effective human–wildlife conflict mitigation strategies requires an understanding of the conflict patterns, species involved and attitudes of local people living along protected area boundaries. We hypothesised that (1) there was a high level of human–wildlife conflict and (2) the local people would have less favourable attitudes towards problematic wild animals. We assessed patterns of human–wildlife conflict and attitudes of local people along the boundary of Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia from 2012 to 2014. A total of 354 households were selected randomly for interview. A questionnaire survey, focus group discussions and direct field observations were carried out in the selected villages. The major types of human−wildlife conflict in the area include crop raiding, livestock predation, increased risk of livestock diseases and direct threats to human life. A majority of the respondents (68.1%) faced crop damage and domestic animal loss, 12.3% reported threat to humans and 0.3% reported that the wildlife might cause diseases. Close proximity of the villages to the park and seasons influenced livestock predation intensity with highest predation in the wet season (56.0%). To mitigate these problems, the local people utilised various traditional methods, including guarding. Most respondents had positive attitudes towards the conservation of wildlife. However, as the frequency of conflicts increased in the last five years, the attitudes of local people might change. Active measures are to be implemented to mitigate the problem and safeguard the future of the wildlife around the park. The park has enormous potential to benefit more local people by implementing a participatory management approach to conservation.

ABSTRACTThe objective of this study was to assess human–wildlife's conflict in the Yabello district protected area, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The data were collected by using questionnaires, interviews, field observations, and secondary document analysis. The questionnaire was distributed to thirty households within and around the protected area. In addition, interviews were conducted with select local community representatives and office personnel.Uncontrolled management of grazing land, encroachment on the local communities, living settlement patterns near and within the protected area, lack of boundary demarcation and zoning, and increasing demand of the products found in the protected area are major causes of human–wildlife conflict in the Yabello protected area. Loss of livestock contributes to disturbances in the livelihood of local households, which in turn have a major impact on human–wildlife conflict in the local communities. Habitat disturbance and migration of wildlife are the serious byproducts of human–wildlife conflict. Predatory wildlife includes hyenas, foxes, and leopards. Crop-raiding animals are zebras, wild pigs, gerenuk, and monkeys, all of which also are negatively affected by human–wildlife conflict.

The devouring of crops by wild herbivores is a major issue in human-wildlife conflict. Although many studies identify the conflict, attempt to estimate the extent of economic loss and its consequences, and suggest some mitigation measures, many fundamental issues remain unaddressed. A number of speculations about the root causes behind the problem have been made, but they have not been treated and tested as alternative hypotheses. In this article, (a) we make a list of alternative hypotheses collected from a wide variety of sources; (b) we evaluate their plausibility, logical integrity and compatibility with existing data; (c) we suggest differential testable predictions; and (d) we discuss their differential implications for mitigation measures. It is important to identify the specific causes of the conflict because the efficacy of mitigation measures crucially depends on the predominant underlying cause. Measures applied without a good understanding of the causal factors might turn out to be ineffective and even counterproductive. Substantial research needs to be focused on differentially testing the predictions of the alternative hypotheses to be able to handle the problem and promote healthy coexistence of wildlife with indigenous people. Although our perceptions of the problem and illustrative examples are in the Indian wildlife context, some of the emerging outcomes will have global importance.

The purpose of this research was to identify the type of human- wildlife conflicts and wild mammals that cause the conflict, determine the extent of damage and to provide a better understanding of the causes of human-wildlife conflict in Wondo Genet district. The study was carried out from December 2013 to June 2013. Four sample areas were selected to collect data on human-wildlife conflict; Gotu, Wosha Soyoma and Wethera Kechema villages and Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. Data were collected using questionnaires, one to one interviews, observations and cross checking of crop loss using quadrants in selected crop lands, reviewing of literature, and was later analyzed using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS). In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the target population comprised the households living in sampled areas, local administrators and staffs who lived within Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources. The study established that crop damages, livestock killing, human disruption and property destruction were some of the mostly reported damages. The results of the study further indicated that animal species most involved in HWC were warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus), vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), Olive baboon (Papio anubis), porcupine (Hystrix cristata), Giant mole rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus) and African civet (Civettictis civetta). They were involved mostly in crop raiding/ damage. Most raided crops were maize (Zea mays), sugar cane (Saccharum africanum) and Enset (Ensete ventricosum). Over 75% of the population of Wondo Genet district was affected by crop raiders. Therefore, conservation education is paramount, coherent land use plans should be emphasized to determine where certain crops can be grown.

There are several livelihood improvement and natural resource management campaigns being undertaken in Ethiopia. In Cheha Woreda District of Guraghe Zone, a research team from the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holetta Research Center, is undertaking a watershed-level intervention to improve sustainable land management practices among resident agrarian families. In 2011, a household survey was conducted to assess farmers' perceptions of human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) and the effects of these conflicts on land management in Cheha Woreda. One-hundred randomly selected households in the Cheha Woreda were asked to identify any wild or domestic animals that cause damage to their crops. Additionally, respondents were asked to gauge the extent of the damages; the direct and indirect social, economic, and environmental impacts; and the overall trends in the area's wildlife populations. In addition to the household survey, 3 focus group discussions were held to capture farmers' perceptions. The findings show that Grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops), crested porcupines (Hystrix cristata), baboons (Papio spp.), antelopes (Gazella spp.), warthogs (Phacochoerus sp.), and wild pigs (Sus sp.) were the major crop raiders in the area, while spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), foxes (Vulpes sp.), eagles (Accipitridae) and Ethiopian ratels or honey badgers (Mellivora capensis) were the most common livestock predators. More than 90% of the households reported that they faced damages to their property by these species. Additionally, about 55% of the respondents reported a high severity of crop damage, with monkeys alleged to be the greatest culprits. Respondents perceived that HWC have resulted in significant vegetation removal, shifts in crop production, food shortages, and poverty in the study area. Eighty-eight percent of farmers reported believing that wild animals significantly contributed to the shortages of food for their family. The farmers were aware of several locally used management options, which they suggested could be used to reduce the negative impacts of the conflicts. We conclude that HWC and farmers' perceptions of HWC in the Cheha Woreda have had and continue to have significant impacts on the social, economic, and environmental well-being of the area. Hence, different management options must be adopted to mediate the effects and minimize future conflicts.

Human–wildlife conflict has become a significant challenge for conservationists, particularly in areas where endangered species, such as large carnivores, are recovering. If we fail to keep a balance between the interests of humans and wildlife, the human–wildlife conflict can have adverse outcomes. However, the drivers of human–wildlife conflict, and how to mitigate conflict, are often poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to explore the possible causes for and potential mitigating approaches to human–tiger conflict risks through spatiotemporal niche partitioning. Based on data from the reports of Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) preying on cattle and camera trap detection data from 2014 to 2019 in Hunchun, Northeast China, we predicted Amur tiger occurrence and created risk maps of human–tiger potential encounters. We found that Amur tiger occurrence was positively driven by prey distribution and negatively by the distribution of pastures used for domestic cattle grazing. Livestock was increasingly predated in areas with limited preferred prey, that is, wild pig (Sus scrofa) and sika (Cervus nippon), and in closer proximity to cattle‐grazing land. On the basis of our models, we divided areas utilized by human and Amur tigers into low‐, medium‐, and high‐risk areas across multiple spatiotemporal scales. We suppose that multiple spatiotemporal scale niche partitioning management might effectively reduce the risk of human–tiger encounters, prompt harmonized coexistence between humans and tigers, and provide new solutions to other areas experiencing human–wildlife conflicts.

Simple SummaryCommunities adjacent to protected areas usually face conflict with protected wildlife. Wildlife tourism is regarded as a tool to mitigate such conflict through bringing economic benefits to villagers and then increasing villagers’ tolerance of wildlife. We used qualitative methods to conduct a case study on a macaque tourism attraction in China and find that tourism may escalate rather than mitigate community–wildlife conflict. Provisioning food is a common way to attract wild animals to visit and stay in human activity areas. In the case of macaque tourism, anthropogenic food provision caused rapid population increase and more intra-group aggressive behaviors. More tourist–macaque interactions resulted in macaques becoming habituated to human’s presence. These ecological impacts on macaques led more invasion to the surrounding community and intensified resident–macaque conflict. Meanwhile, low community participation in tourism generated few benefits for residents and did not help alter residents’ hostile attitudes towards the macaques. Local residents gradually retreated from agriculture as the macaques became more intrusive. We propose a holistic model combining social and ecological perspectives to evaluate the role of wildlife tourism in resolving community–wildlife conflict. We suggest that wildlife tourism should minimize human–wildlife intimate interactions and food provision.Human–wildlife conflict is a barrier to achieving sustainable biodiversity conservation and community development in protected areas. Tourism is often regarded as a tool to mitigate such conflict. However, existing studies have mainly adopted a socio-economic perspective to examine the benefits of tourism for communities, neglecting the ecological effects of tourism. This case study of macaque tourism on a peninsula in China illustrates that tourism can escalate rather than mitigate human–wildlife conflict. Fifty-three stakeholders were interviewed and secondary data were collected to understand the development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) tourism and community–macaque conflict. The results show that food provision and tourist–macaque interactions rapidly increased the macaques’ population, habituation, and aggressive behaviors, which led them to invade the surrounding community more often and exacerbated human–macaque conflict. Meanwhile, low community participation in tourism generated few benefits for residents and did not help alter residents’ hostile attitudes towards the macaques. Local residents gradually retreated from agriculture as the macaques became more intrusive. A holistic approach to evaluating the role of wildlife tourism in resolving community–wildlife conflict is proposed and practical suggestions for alleviating such conflict are given.

ABSTRACTHuman–wildlife conflict is one of the major challenges in conservation biology. Here, we investigated the human–wildlife conflicts and their impacts in and around Chebera-Churchura National Park, Ethiopia. We conducted semistructured interview for 300 people and five focus group discussions from November 2010 to January 2011. In addition, scats of 60 spotted hyenas were collected and analyzed. Totally, 12 carnivores, 6 herbivores, and 2 primate species posing a significant problem were identified. Intensive human–wildlife conflict was observed in Churchura, Sere, and Chebera villages which were very close to the park. The carnivore’s attacks during 2007–2011 had caused about 30.49% of livestock losses. The overall economic loss by wildlife attacks was estimated to be US$ 75,234 (US$ 83/household/year). Scat analysis confirmed a substantial contribution (59%) of livestock to spotted hyena’s diet. Thus, combined strategies like improving livestock husbandries and strengthen the capacity of managers are imperative to mitigate the problems.

Wildlife trafficking and human–wildlife conflict are major causes of species decline. The illegal nature of wildlife trafficking makes it hard, and sometimes dangerous, to study. ‘Mansión Mascota’ is a veterinary clinic in Guayaquil, Ecuador, which, through agreement with the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment, receives confiscated wildlife for treatment. Mansión Mascota also receives injured and abandoned wildlife brought in by the authorities and the public. Between January 2018 and September 2022, the clinic received 3212 wild animals from ≥171 taxa, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Through the classification of records based on reported use, native distribution, and evidence of capture/pet keeping, we were able to classify 1127 animals of 68 species as subject to wildlife trafficking. Turtles were the most abundant group (69%). The majority of turtles (91%) and primates (80%) were of Amazonian origin, whereas 90% of psittacines and 97% of carnivores had potential coastal origins. Threatened and conservation-dependent species were common in the traffic. Furthermore, ≥955 animals of 106 species were brought to the clinic due to anthropogenic wildlife conflict. Trafficking, combined with the high number of injured animals, highlights the synergistic threats facing wildlife in Ecuador.

Human–wildlife conflict is one of the most critical threats facing many wildlife species today, and the topic is receiving increasing attention from conservation biologists. Direct wildlife damage is commonly cited as the main driver of conflict, and many tools exist for reducing such damage. However, significant conflict often remains even after damage has been reduced, suggesting that conflict requires novel, comprehensive approaches for long‐term resolution. Although most mitigation studies investigate only the technical aspects of conflict reduction, peoples' attitudes towards wildlife are complex, with social factors as diverse as religious affiliation, ethnicity and cultural beliefs all shaping conflict intensity. Moreover, human–wildlife conflicts are often manifestations of underlying human–human conflicts, such as between authorities and local people, or between people of different cultural backgrounds. Despite evidence that social factors can be more important in driving conflict than wildlife damage incurred, they are often ignored in conflict studies. Developing a broader awareness of conflict drivers will advance understanding of the patterns and underlying processes behind this critical conservation issue. In this paper, I review a wide variety of case studies to show how social factors strongly influence perceptions of human–wildlife conflict, and highlight how mitigation approaches should become increasingly innovative and interdisciplinary in order to enable people to move from conflict towards coexistence.