EU Environmental Sustainability Requirements and Brazilian Biofuel Exports Exigences de durabilité environnementale de l’Union européenne et exportations brésiliennes de biocarburants Die EU-Anforderungen für ökologische Nachhaltigkeit und Biokraftsto

Mitigating Land Use Changes From Biofuel Expansion: An Assessment of Biofuel Feedstock Yield Potential in APEC Economies

Even though recent discussions on food prices and indirect land use change point at potential conflicts associated with the production of biofuels the appraisal of biofuels as an effective instrument to slow down climate change and reduce energy dependency still prevails. The EU Renewable Energy Directive (EUROPEAN COMMISSION, 2009) underlines this trend by setting a target of 10% share of energy from renewable sources in the transport sector by 2020. As economic competitiveness of biofuel production is still not given in most European countries, support policies are essential to achieve this target. Second generation technologies have still not attained marketability, wherefore biofuel consumption will continue to significantly affect agricultural markets. Furthermore, biofuel trade receives more attention. Apart from Brazil the USA has evolved to one of the key biofuel producer in recent years replacing the EU as the dominant biodiesel exporter. Those developments in regions outside the EU have to be considered within the evolution of biofuel markets. The primary objective of this paper is to analyse in detail impacts of future biofuel developments on agricultural markets under several assumptions regarding the availability of 2nd generation technologies, the EU support policy framework and the EU trade policy regime. Therefore, we developed an extended version of the comparative static agricultural sector model CAPRI which covers global biofuel markets with a detailed focus on Europe. The results supplement already existing model-based impact assessments while focussing on EU Member State level and introducing global bilateral trade of biofuels based on the Armington approach. The results of our scenario analysis presented in this paper indicate that the European 2020 biofuel target will significantly affect global and European biofuel- as well as agricultural markets. Thereby, global biofuel trade will notably increase, especially flows of biodiesel from the USA and Argentina and of ethanol from Brazil into the EU will increase accentuating the net-importing position of the EU by 2020. On the agricultural markets, we can observe that additional demand caused by European biofuel production will be, on the one hand, partially compensated by substitution effects on the feed market and, on the other hand, mainly filled by increasing imports. Thus, effects on agricultural product prices will also be significant, while effects on EU agricultural production will only be marginal. This leads consequently to only marginal environmental impacts within Europe and confirm the assumption that notable environmental effects caused by EU biofuel production and consumption will mainly take place outside Europe, especially in those countries which are important producers of biofuel feedstock

The topic is intentionally controversial. Prices on a number of food types used for biofuel have doubled in last couple of years. In the same time oil price is soaring. Many factors are contributing to the rise of food prices: the biggest is escalating demand. In recent years the economies of the world developing countries have been growing about 7 percent a year; other factors are droughts, new deregulation in agricultural policies (less intervention lowering stock levels), US dollar weakness benefiting commodity prices as safe haven asset and increase production costs like energy inputs. The explanation of the increases of oils prices are very close: the growth of new developing countries, political instability in fuel exporting countries, the loss of faith in US currency, the low investments in prospecting and refining of fuel. The use of renewable biofuels in lieu of fuel to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase energy security. Brazil produces 5 billions gal (19 millions hL) of sugarcane ethanol, enough to supply 45% of its transportation fuel demands. This production needs 6 millions hectares on a total of 400 millions ha for farming. In EU the proportion area devoted to biofuels is 1%. In US, at the same time substantial price rises for maize, the main raw material for the US ethanol. The expected reduction in US maize exports would weigh heavily on the already tight supply on international grain market. In any event, even if maize yields were to achieve the require increase, the United States might have to limit exports in order to achieve its ambitious biofuels targets. The competition between food uses and biofuels is depending of the speed of development of second generation cellulosic and biomass based biofuels and of the purpose of US authorities to improve the level of grains stocks as corn, wheat and soya.

Introduction Sugarcane is an important plant in the world that cultivate for the production of sugar and energy. For this purpose, evaluation of Sugarcane (SC) and Energycane (EC) methods is necessary. Energy is vital for economic and social development and the demand for it is rising. The international community look toward alternative to fossil fuels is the aim of using liquid fuel derived from agricultural resources. According to calculations, about 47% from renewable energy sources in Brazil comes from sugarcane so as, the country is known the second largest source of renewable energy. Sugarcane in Brazil provides about 17.5% of primary energy sources. Material such as bagasse and ethanol are derived from sugarcane that provide 4.2% and 11.2 % consumed energy, respectively . In developing countries, the use of this product increase in order to achieve self-sufficiency in the production of starch and sugar and thus independence in bioethanol production. Evaluation of energy consumption in manufacturing systems, show the measurement method of yield conversion to the amount of energy. Many of products of Sugarcane have ability to produce bioenergy. Many materials obtain from sugarcane such as, cellulosic ethanol, biofuels and other chemical materials. Hence, Energycane is introduced as a new method of sugarcane harvesting. But, one of the problems of this method is high cost and high energy consumption of harvester. So that the total cost of Energycane method is 38.4 percent of production total costs, whereas, this cost, in Sugarcane method is 5.32 percent of production total costs. In a study that was conducted by Matanker et al (2014) with title “Power requirements and field performance in harvesting EC and SC”, the power requirements of some components of sugarcane harvester and its field capacity, in Sugarcane and Energycane methods were examined. The consumed power by basecutter, elevator and chopper was measured in terms of Mega grams per hour (Mg.h-1) Chopper energy consumption in Energycane method was 1.65 KJ more than Sugarcane method. The quantitative parameters including forward speed (km.h-1), field capacity (ha.h-1), the field performance (Mg.ha-1) and reed output (Mg.h-1) were also measured. Finally, statistical comparison was conducted between the two methods. The aim of this study is to provide Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method using the calculated parameters by the Matanker et al. This method provides decision-making ability for a manager. Materials and Methods In this study, quantitative parameters including fuel consumption (Lit.ha-1), harvester power (kW), efficiency of engine torque (%), energy of used hydraulic oil in basecutter, chopper and elevator (Mj.Mg-1), forward speed (km.h-1), field capacity (ha.h-1), the field performance (Mg.ha-1) and reed output (Mg.h-1 ) and qualitative parameters including the mean of average diameter of the stem (mm), stem height (m), number of stems on the meter (m-1), the percentage of cut stems and intact, cut stems and partially damaged and strongly damaged stems. The average height of straw and the stubble (mm), average of bulk density (kg.m-3), the average of moisture content, average of dry matter (biomass), (Mg.ha-1) were measured. Data analysis was conducted with Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method. Tables 1 and 2 in terms of qualitative and quantitative parameters for the two methods of A and B, to form of rij matrix and based on measured criteria (C) have arranged, respectively. Conclusions Choosing the appropriate method for sugarcane harvesting should be according to the purpose of harvesting. Energycane method has high energy consumption that it increases the operational costs. On the other hand, the quality of the obtained biomass from it is better, but Sugarcane method has high energy efficiency. But in terms of quality, the plant is not in good condition. For this reason, it is necessary, aim of harvesting and its type, be specified before crop planting.

The production of six regionally important cellulosic biomass feedstocks, including pine, eucalyptus, unmanaged hardwoods, forest residues, switchgrass, and sweet sorghum, was analyzed using consistent life cycle methodologies and system boundaries to identify feedstocks with the lowest cost and environmental impacts. Supply chain analysis models were created for each feedstock calculating costs and supply chain requirements for the production 453,592 dry tonnes of biomass per year. Cradle-to-gate environmental impacts from these supply systems were quantified for nine mid-point indicators using SimaPro 7.2 LCA software. Conversion of grassland to managed forest for bioenergy resulted in large reductions in GHG emissions, due to carbon sequestration associated with direct land use change. However, converting forests to energy cropland resulted in large increases in GHG emissions. Production of forest-based feedstocks for biofuels resulted in lower delivered cost, lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and lower overall environmental impacts than the studied agricultural feedstocks. Forest residues had the lowest environmental impact and delivered cost per dry tonne. Using forest-based biomass feedstocks instead of agricultural feedstocks would result in lower cradle-to-gate environmental impacts and delivered biomass costs for biofuel production in the southern U.S. Introduction. Production of cellulosic biofuels and other bio-based products are expected to increase national energy independence, improve rural economies, and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) compared to conventional transportation fuels (Demirbas 2008). To ensure greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions and a sustainable bioenergy industry, the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) established the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) thresholds (percent reduction) compared to the 2005 base line, with reductions of 20% for renewable fuels, 50% for advance fuels, 50% for biomass-based fuels and 60% for cellulosic biofuels (EPA 2012). The feedstock type used for biofuels conversion can play a central role in determining the overall GHG emissions as well as the financial and technological feasibility of a renewable biofuel. This study evaluated six potential biomass supply system scenarios for renewable energy production (liquid and/or solid fuels) in the southern U.S. Supply chain logistics, delivered cost and environmental burdens of these biomass feedstocks were qualified and quantified from cradle-to-gate. Feedstocks analyzed included loblolly pine, eucalyptus, unmanaged hardwood, forest residues, switchgrass and sweet sorghum. Previous studies have revealed feedstock production and delivery as the single largest contributor to the financial feasibility of bioenergy Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSN 2329-9169) is published annually by the Sustainable Conoscente Network. Melissa Bilec and Jun-ki Choi, co-editors. ISSSTNetwork@gmail.com. Copyright © 2013 by Jesse S. Daystar, Carter W. Reeb, Ronalds Gonzalez, Richard A. Venditti. Licensed under

Dewatering of microalgae using flocculation and electrocoagulation

The use of non-renewable energy sources is no longer considered applicable. This is due, on the one hand, to the depletion of fossil fuels that are depleted, to the harmful environmental effects of their use, and, on the other hand, to their ever-increasing price. Therefore it is necessary to use renewable energy sources (wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, etc.). Among renewable energy sources, one of the most developing energy sources in the near future seems to be the biomass from which biofuels can be derived. These fuels can be used as substitutes for conventional fuels. One of the most widely known biofuels is biodiesel, which can replace fossil diesel. The alkyl esters of the fatty acids that make up biodiesel and its properties are similar to those of ordinary diesel. Therefore its use in diesel engines will not require any modification. A triglyceride transesterification reaction is required to produce it. Microalgae are composed of vegetable oils and animal fats which can be used as a source of triglycerides. Microalgae are simple photosynthetic microorganisms that use solar energy, water, CO2 and simple nutrients such as N, P and K to synthesize large amounts of protein, carbohydrates and lipids in a short time. The triglycerides produced by their lipids are of great interest for the production of biodiesel. The only viable source of biodiesel so far seems to be microalgae oils which are able to meet the global demand for transport fuels. Compared to the energy crops used to date, microalgae have the ability to produce a larger amount of raw material per square meter for biodiesel production. They have an advantage over other crops as they can thrive even in areas that are unsuitable for growing edible plants, this results in the use of areas unsuitable for other crops. Microalgae that have an advantage over the rest due to their high lipid content and high biomass production are preferred for biodiesel production. To achieve the combination of the two above characteristics requires the cultivation under appropriate conditions or the genetic modification of the microalgae.

Now days renewable biofuels are needed to displace petroleum derived transport fuels, which contribute to global warming and are of limited availability. Biodiesel is a potential renewable fuel that has attracted the most attention. Biodiesel from cyanobacteria seems to be a renewable biofuel that have the potential to displace petroleum-derived transport fuels, to accumulate significant amounts of lipids without affecting supply of food and also can use non-arable land. Cyanobacteria has attracted the attention of researchers because unlike crop plants their energy is converted to lipids and not fibers in the process of photosynthesis, so they are able to synthesize vegetable oils in large quantities, which can be converted into biofuels through transesterification, but there is necessary a rigorous evaluation to determine whether this type of fuel is competitive to the fossil fuels or not. This paper presents an overview of the possibility to obtaine biodiesel from cyanobacteria. The final aim of the study is to control growing factors, aiming to develop procedures to increase the biomass of cyanobacteria and fat content which could serve as a source of biodiesel production. A main objective is to develop techniques to achieve productivity closer to the photosynthesis maximum efficiency.

Handbook of Biofuels Production, Second Edition, discusses advanced chemical, biochemical, and thermochemical biofuels production routes that are fast being developed to address the global increase in energy usage. Research and development in this field is aimed at improving the quality and environmental impact of biofuels production, as well as the overall efficiency and output of biofuels production plants. The book provides a comprehensive and systematic reference on the range of biomass conversion processes and technology. Key changes for this second edition include increased coverage of emerging feedstocks, including microalgae, more emphasis on by-product valorization for biofuels' production, additional chapters on emerging biofuel production methods, and discussion of the emissions associated with biofuel use in engines. The editorial team is strengthened by the addition of two extra members, and a number of new contributors have been invited to work with authors from the first edition to revise existing chapters, thus offering fresh perspectives. Provides systematic and detailed coverage of the processes and technologies being used for biofuel production Discusses advanced chemical, biochemical, and thermochemical biofuels production routes that are fast being developed to address the global increase in energy usage Reviews the production of both first and second generation biofuels Addresses integrated biofuel production in biorefineries and the use of waste materials as feedstocks

Biodiesel is a highly effective fuel with the same efficiency such as diesel oil derivative only accompanied by moderate engine modifications. This type of biofuel can be obtained from renewable sources such as vegetable, animal or frying oils. In this context, waste frying oils transesterification was studied to obtain the maximum value of biodiesel. Transesterification reactions were carried out between 70 to 90 min using waste frying oils (WFOs), methanol, and sodium hydroxide as catalyst. In order to determine the best conditions for biodiesel production, a series of experiments were carried out, using catalyst percent and temperatures in a range of 0.16 to 1.84% and 40 to 90°C, respectively. The highest biodiesel production was obtained using catalyst percent, temperature and reaction time of 0.5%, 80°C and 90 min, respectively. By statistical experimental design was possible to determine a mathematical model to predict the best operational conditions to maximize biodiesel production.

Applications of Biotechnology for the Utilization of Renewable Energy Resources Om V. Singh and Steven P. Harvey Chapter 1 Heat and mass transport in processing of lignocellulosic biomass for fuels and chemicals Sridhar Viamajala, Bryon S. Donohoe, Stephen R. Decker, Todd B. Vinzant, Michael J. Selig, Michael E. Himmel, and Melvin P. Tucker Chapter 2 Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass Xiaorong Wu, James McLaren, Ron Madl and Donghai Wang Chapter 3 Environmentally Sustainable Biofuels - The Case for Biodiesel, Biobutanol and Cellulosic Ethanol Palligarnai T. Vasudevan, Michael D. Gagnon and Michael S. Briggs Chapter 4 Biotechnological Applications of Hemicellulosic Derived Sugars: State-of-the-art Anuj K. Chandel, Om V. Singh and L.Venkateswar Rao Chapter 5 Tactical Garbage to Energy Refinery (TGER) James J. Valdes and Jerry B. Warner Chapter 6 Production of Methane Biogas as Fuel through Anaerobic Digestion Zhongtang Yu and Floyd L. Schanbacher Chapter 7 Waste to renewable energy: a sustainable and green approach towards production of biohydrogen by acidogenic fermentation S. Venkata Mohan Chapter 8 Bacterial communities in various conditions of the composting reactor revealed by 16S rDNA clone analysis and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis Keiko Watanabe, Norio Nagao, Tatsuki Toda and Norio Kurosawa Chapter 9 Perspectives on Bioenergy and Biofuels Elinor L. Scott, A. Maarten J. Kootstra and Johan P.M. Sanders Chapter 10 Perspectives on Chemicals from Renewable Resources Elinor L. Scott, Johan P.M. Sanders and Alexander Steinbuchel Chapter 11 Microbial Lactic Acid Production from Renewable Resources Yebo Li and Fengjie Cui Chapter 12 Microbial production of potent phenolic-antioxidants through solid state fermentation SilviaMartins, Diego Mercado, Marco Mata-Gomez, Luis Rodriguez, Antonio Aguilera-Carbo, Raul Rodriguez and Cristobal N. Aguilar Chapter 13 Photoautotrophic production of astaxanthin by the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis Esperanza Del Rio, F. Gabriel Acien and Miguel G. Guerrero Chapter 14 Enzymatic Synthesis of Heparin Renpeng Liu and Jian Liu Chapter 15 Extremophiles: Sustainable resource of natural compounds-Extremolytes Raj Kumar, Dev Dutt Patel, Deen Dayal Bansal, Saurabh Mishra, Anis Mohammed, Rajesh Arora, Ashok Sharma, R.K. Sharma and Rajendra Prasad Tripathi

The necessity to maintain mobility and the increasing energy- and environmentally sound demands necessitated the research, development and utilization of engine fuels from renewable resources. Because of the negative features of the already and generally applied bio-derived Diesel fuel, the biodiesel, it was necessary to research and develop other chemical processes that convert triglycerides through different reaction ways. These second generation bio-fuels are the bio gas oils, which are mixtures of n- and i-paraffins. Otherwise these hydrocarbons are the choice components of the fossil derived Diesel fuels. During the experimental work our aim was to investigate the heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of waste lard – as a renewable agro-derived feedstock – and by mixing it to deep desulphurized gas oil stream, respectively on PtPd/USY catalyst. In the course of it, we studied the effects of the process parameters (temperature: 300–380 °C, pressure 40-60-80 bar, LHSV: 0.75–1.25 h-1, H2/feedstock rate: 600 Nm3/m3) on the quality and quantity of the products. We determined that during the co-processing of lard and desulphurized gas oil, the saturation of the aromatic content and the deoxygenation of the triglyceride part of the feedstock -isoparaffins formed - took place, respectively and at process temperatures (360–380 °C) found to be favourable by us, excellent, bio-component containing and significantly dearomatized diesel fuel blending components could be obtained. These products meet the valid diesel gas oil standard EN 590:2009+A1:2010, except for their cold flow properties.

Producing energy from biomass and other organic waste residues is essential for sustainable development. Like biodiesel, green diesel is a next generation biofuels emerging due to the need for a renewable replacement of petrodiesel. Green diesel is a mixture of carbon chains which are derived from lignocellulosic biomass and the fuel properties are naturally similar to the petrodiesel. This paper discussed an integrated green diesel production route from non-food biomass resources. A systematic literature for lignocellulosic biomass resources has been developed. The systematic literature focuses on hydrodeoxygenation or catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction.

Biofuels are fuels produced from organic material, called biomass, sourced from renewable sources, which can be vegetable oils and animal fat. Among the best-known sources are sugarcane, corn, soybeans, sunflower seed, wood, pulp, vegetable oil, and other materials that are being researched in universities and companies associated with the industry. The process of biodiesel through the aloe - known as Aloe - using as feedstock types of alcohol (methanol and/or ethanol), so that in case a catalyst bound to form an ester (trans esterification process) to obtain a product and byproduct (biodiesel and glycerin) shows a sustainable viability. Index Terms - biofuel, sustainability, aloe vera.

Lignocellulosic wastes have stood out in the study and development of processes aimed at producing biofuels. Brazil is one of the world’s largest food producers and ranks fifth in world production of bananas with an average production of seven million tons per year. For each ton of bananas harvested, around four tons of lignocellulosic wastes are generated, among which 75% consists of banana plant pseudostem. This work investigated the production of bioethanol by Saccharomyces cerevisae using this residue (pseudosteam) as a fermentation substrate previously hydrolyzed under the following conditions: (a) 250 g/L of fresh biomass (equivalent to 11.75 g/L of dry matter) cut into about 1 mm long pieces and (b) 70 g/L of dry and milled biomass (drying in 60 oC forced air draft tray dryer and milling in Solab knife mill until particles of size smaller than 30 mesh). The biomass pre-treatments with H2SO4 2% m/m and NaOH 3% m/m, both conducted at 120 °C, 15 min were evaluated. For saccharification of the pre-treated biomass, enzymatic hydrolysis (24 h, pH 5.5, 45 °C) using Novozymes® enzymatic complex composed of cellulase, beta-glucosidase and xylanase was used. The experiments were conducted in Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 mL of work volume. The greatest percent yield in glucose (YRS = 79.5±4.4 %), calculated based on the theoretical yield of cellulose hydrolysis to glucose (1.1 g/g), was obtained with fresh biomass pre-treated with NaOH. This value was 84% higher than the percent yield resulting from the pretreatment of 70 g/L of dry biomass with the same type of hydrolysis catalyst (YRS = 43.2±1.2 %) and 31% higher than the value reached in the pretreatment of this same biomass with H2SO4 (YRS = 60.7±6.7%). The maximum RS value in hydrolyzed liquor (without prior concentration by evaporation) was obtained from dry biomass saccharification with H2SO4 (26.6±1.1 g/L). The fermentation of this liquor, after concentrating to RS = 62.1 g/L, resulted in an ethanol production of 22.1±0.8 g/L with respective values of YP/RS = 0.47±0.03 g/g, ethanol productivity (QP) 1.83±0.12 g/L.h and effectiveness of alcoholic fermentation (EP) 80.4±0.12 %.