Ethnobotanical insights into the use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention and treatment in Teziutlán, Puebla, México

Use of medicinal plants by health professionals in Mexico

BackgroundAlthough, medicinal plants have been important for women’s health historically, the knowledge about such use during pregnancy in developing countries is limited. This is the first quantitative, ethnobotanical study on Malian women’s use of and attitudes towards the use of medicinal plants during pregnancy.The aim of the study was to describe Malian women’s use of medicinal plants during pregnancy according to indications and to evaluate the potentially safety of such use. The overall aim was to preserve valuable information about medicinal plants for women’s reproductive health for the future.MethodsData was collected through structured interviews of 209 pregnant women or mothers in three health care centers in Mali. The women were interviewed about their uses of medicinal plants during pregnancy and their attitudes to such use. Nine specific medicinal plants commonly used in Mali and treatment of eleven common ailments in pregnancy were specifically queried about.ResultsIn total, 79.9 % had used medicinal plants during pregnancy. Only 17 women (8.5 %) had received a recommendation from a traditional practitioner (TP). The most commonly used medicinal plants were Lippia chevalieri (55.5 %), Combretum micranthum (39.7 %), Parkia biglobosa (12.0 %) and Vepris heterophylla (8.1 %). The most common reasons for use were for well-being (37.7 %), symptoms of malaria (37.1 %) and ”increased salt-elimination” (to reduce edema) (19.2 %). For treatment of symptoms of malaria and urinary tract infections during pregnancy, the women’s choices of medicinal plants agreed with those previously reported from interviews with TPs. Almost 30 % believed that medicinal plants had no adverse effects for the mother.ConclusionThis study showed an extensive use and knowledge of medicinal plants during pregnancy in three regions in Mali. However, exclusive use of medicinal plants as treatment of malaria and urinary tract infections during pregnancy may pose a health risk for the mother and her unborn child. A wider collaboration with TPs, with local communities and conventional health workers of the health care centers, on the safe use of medicinal plants, is important to promote safer pregnancies and better health care for pregnant women and their unborn infants in Mali.

The burden of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru has led to people seeking alternative treatments as preventives and treatment options such as medicinal plants. This study aimed to assess factors associated with the use of medicinal plants as preventive or treatment of respiratory symptom related to COVID-19 during the pandemic in Cusco, Peru. A web-based cross-sectional study was conducted on general public (20- to 70-year-old) from August 31 to September 20, 2020. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire via Google Forms, it consisted of an 11-item questionnaire that was developed and validated by expert judgment using Aiken's V (Aiken's V > 0.9). Both descriptive statistics and bivariate followed by multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess factors associated with the use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention and respiratory symptom treatment during the pandemic. Prevalence ratios (PR) with 95% Confidence Interval (CI), and a P-value of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance. A total of 1,747 respondents participated in the study, 80.2% reported that they used medicinal plants as preventives, while 71% reported that they used them to treat respiratory symptoms. At least, 24% of respondents used medicinal plants when presenting with two or more respiratory symptoms, while at least 11% used plants for malaise. For treatment or prevention, the multivariate analysis showed that most respondents used eucalyptus (p < 0.001 for both), ginger (p < 0.022 for both), spiked pepper (p < 0.003 for both), garlic (p = 0.023 for prevention), and chamomile (p = 0.011 for treatment). The respondents with COVID-19 (p < 0.001), at older ages (p = 0.046), and with a family member or friend who had COVID-19 (p < 0.001) used more plants for prevention. However, the respondents with technical or higher education used less plants for treatment (p < 0.001). There was a significant use of medicinal plants for both prevention and treatment, which was associated with several population characteristics and whether respondents had COVID-19.

BackgroundThe burden of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru has led to people seeking alternative treatments as preventives and treatment options such as medicinal plants. This study aimed to assess factors associated with the use of medicinal plants as preventive or treatment of respiratory symptom related to COVID-19 during the pandemic in Cusco, Peru.MethodA web-based cross-sectional study was conducted on general public (20- to 70-year-old) from August 31 to September 20, 2020. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire via Google Forms, it consisted of an 11-item questionnaire that was developed and validated by expert judgment using Aiken’s V (Aiken’s V > 0.9). Both descriptive statistics and bivariate followed by multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess factors associated with the use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention and respiratory symptom treatment during the pandemic. Prevalence ratios (PR) with 95% Confidence Interval (CI), and a P-value of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance.ResultsA total of 1,747 respondents participated in the study, 80.2% reported that they used medicinal plants as preventives, while 71% reported that they used them to treat respiratory symptoms. At least, 24% of respondents used medicinal plants when presenting with two or more respiratory symptoms, while at least 11% used plants for malaise. For treatment or prevention, the multivariate analysis showed that most respondents used eucalyptus (p < 0.001 for both), ginger (p < 0.022 for both), spiked pepper (p < 0.003 for both), garlic (p = 0.023 for prevention), and chamomile (p = 0.011 for treatment). The respondents with COVID-19 (p < 0.001), at older ages (p = 0.046), and with a family member or friend who had COVID-19 (p < 0.001) used more plants for prevention. However, the respondents with technical or higher education used less plants for treatment (p < 0.001).ConclusionThere was a significant use of medicinal plants for both prevention and treatment, which was associated with several population characteristics and whether respondents had COVID-19.

Renewed interest in medicinal and aromatic plants during the past 20 years has brought surging markets and production opportunities for these plant species. To enhance and maintain market growth, however, MAP production systems, whether cultivated or collected, will need to ensure sustainable production of quality plant materials that have been wholesomely grown and processed. The growing familiarity of western consumers with medicinal and aromatic plants places a premium on standardized plant materials that are organically produced and meet expectations for efficacy. Currently, market demand for MAP is nurtured by consumer demographics and by favorable impressions of bioactivity, but this demand remains susceptible to myths, traditions, and science reports associated with the plant materials. By addressing the problems of standardization and verifiable marker compounds along with issues such as plant domestication, conservation, biotechnology, and others that affect plant cultivation, producers and processors can assure acceptable products reach the marketplace and crop production opportunities will continue to grow. Introduction A recent resurgence of interest in medicinal plants in many Western nations, the continued dependence of people in much of the world on these species, and the advent of a globalized economy has brought sustainability challenges to the medicinal plant trade. The modern market for medicinal plants has, in general, grown over the past 15 years (Fig. 1), but remains fragile, subject to governmental regulations, research findings, and media publicity along with the usual factors associated with supply and demand. Indeed, many challenges to the continued growth of the market exist, including appropriate education of consumers, assurances of high quality products, and availability of a sustainable supply of plant material. The development of patentable, synthetic pharmaceuticals in the 1930s and 1940s in America and other Western countries (Table 1) resulted in the active abandonment of medicinal plants in health care, leaving new generations of both health care practitioners and the general populace with only a limited history, culture, and understanding about the appropriate use of medicinal species for preventing and treating human ailments (Craker and Gardner, 2003). Consumer confidence in pharmaceutical drug development, enhanced by the discovery of antibiotics and vaccinations that prevent or treat many diseases has lately decreased as drug costs escalate and major health problems, such as cancer, AIDS, cardiovascular disease, and numerous other problems continue to exist. An array of interests from medical professionals essentially committed to “modern” pharmaceuticals, consumers seeking alternative health care options, and herbalists promoting the use of medicinal and aromatic plants can convert challenges to market opportunities if growers and processors provide safe, useful plant products and educate consumers and health care professionals on benefits of medicinal plant products. Education of consumers and healthcare practitioners about the correct use of medicinal and aromatic plants and plant extracts will help ensure the continued recognition of the value of these products. For example, Western consumers accustomed Proc. WOCMAP III, Vol 2: Conservation Cultivation & Sustainable Use of MAPs Eds.: A. Jatisatienr, T. Paratasilpin, S. Elliott, V. Anusarnsunthorn, D. Wedge, L.E. Craker and Z.E. Gardner Acta Hort. 676, ISHS 2005 26 to taking a pharmaceutical drug and experiencing the effect of the drug within minutes to hours must learn that an herbal product that may take much longer to exhibit noticeable activity. Similarly, consumers and producers must replace the concept of taking drugs to treat pre-existing conditions with the concept of taking medicinal plants to improve general health and to treat both clinical and sub-clinical conditions. If consumers and health care providers are unfamiliar with the concepts of medicinal herb use, they cannot be expected to seek, recommend, or use these plants as medicine. Consumer Demographics As with any commodity, sales and use of medicinal plant products are influenced by the type of people that use these products. Indeed, a good share of the growth in sales of medicinal and aromatic plants and other natural products over the past 15 years can be attributed to the growth of certain demographic groups. Immigrants from Asia and Latin America have popularized a new palette of herbs and spices in restaurants and homes in the United States. This popularization has been such that U.S. spice consumption grew from 2 pounds per capita in 1976 to 3.2 pounds per capita in 1995 (Anonymous, 1998) (Fig. 2). Contributing to the increase in spice consumption is a change in lifestyle in many industrialized nations. The movement of women, historically the people responsible for meal preparation, from the home to workplace has altered traditional roles, requiring easier food preparation within the limited time available after work. In these instances, spices are frequently used to enhance the flavor of homemade and prepared meals. A highly significant trend among consumers is the increase in consumers interested in environmental issues, the so-called “green” consumers (Roper, 2002). Such consumers are willing to pay a premium for eco-friendly products, including organic foods, recycled products, and herbal remedies. These consumers value natural alternatives to conventional products including foods and medicines, thus medicinal plant products and natural food flavorings are favored by these consumers. Media Influences Media stories featuring medicinal plants appear highly influential in consumer demand and acceptance of medicinal plants. While medicinal plants were featured positively in several highly publicized stories in the late 1990s (Greenwald, 1998; Johnson et al., 1997), many of the more recent stories have been negative with concerns focused on several plant species (such as kava and ephedra) (Burros, 2002; Strugatch, 2002), with few headlines highlighting the benefits or proper use of medicinal plants. Most of the negative stories are concerned with the lack of standardization of dose or with reports of results from poorly designed research studies (Brody, 1999). Product Quality The popularization of medicinal plants in Western nations during the 1990s encouraged the formation of numerous new companies producing herbal medicines. Unfortunately, the quality of the plant materials (including differences due to natural variation, cultivation practices, and post harvest handling) and processing vary among companies, and thus the quality of oils and other extracts is highly variable. Surveys by independent laboratories have demonstrated significant variation in the quality and reported content of packaged herbal remedies (Anonymous, 2001; ConsumerLab, 2002). News reporting of such variation undoubtedly lowers consumer and health care provider confidence in medicinal plant products. Standardization of herbal products is the most commonly suggested solution for overcoming the natural variation of constituents in plant material. While standardization can help ensure product quality, recognized drawbacks to standardization exist. For example, in many plant species the active constituents of the species are not fully known. Secondly, a combination of plant constituents may be responsible for biological action of the plant or plant extract. Yet, if standard guidelines for marker compounds can be recognized and if plant selection, cultivation methodology, and processing can be

Background: Medicinal herbs are incorrectly believed to be free of risks and are commonly used for self-medication without medical supervision. Jordan does not currently have a national policy on traditional medicine (TM) and/or complementary/alternative medicine (CAM). The present study aims to explore the use of and beliefs about the efficacy of medicinal plants among the Jordanian population. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administrated questionnaire for the duration between April and June 2019. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify predictors of positive attitudes towards the use of medicinal plants. Results: A total of 1,057 individuals participated in the study. The participants in our study showed a positive attitude towards the use of medicinal plants and herbs (median score of 33.0 (interquartile range (IQR): 26.0-37.0; equals 68.8% of the maximum total score), and believed in alternative therapies other than chemical drugs for disease treatment, mainly using medicinal herbs and plants. The majority of the participants (77.8% (n = 822)) believe in the efficacy of the use of medicinal herbs and plants and are aware (64.6 % (n = 683)) of the correct and proper way of using these plants and herbs. Pharmacists and herbalist are the main sources of information for the proper use of medicinal herbs and plants. Age was the main predictor of positive attitudes towards the use of medicinal plants and herbs (P<0.001). Conclusion: Efforts must be made to regulate the dispensing of these products, to educate health service providers and to raise consumer awareness.

Concomitant use of medicinal plants and pharmaceutical drugs among pregnant women in southern Ethiopia

BackgroundInformation on the use of medicinal plants in Karst and Gorjanci is not available in the literature, but collection of plants is still an important and widespread practice in these regions. Karst and Gorjanci are two remote regions in Slovenia that are only 120 km apart but have different climates; one region is close to the Italian border, and the other is near the Croatian border. Our aim was to report and compare the use of medicinal plants in both regions.MethodsFrom October 2013 to September 2014, 25 informants each in Karst and Gorjanci were interviewed during field research. The age of the informants ranged from 33 to 89 years, with an average age of 61 years in Karst and 69 years in Gorjanci. The main question was “Which plants do or did you collect from nature and use?” Plants of medicinal, nutritive, veterinary or cosmetic use were considered.ResultsA total of 78 and 82 taxa were reported in Karst and Gorjanci, respectively; 65 taxa were reported in both regions. Approximately 64% of the plants in each region were distinctive for only a few informants (fewer than 7). The remaining plants were considered important, and the majority were mutual to both regions. Few reported plants were typical for just one region. Differences in the use of some common medicinal plants were observed, e.g., Matricaria chamomilla was used mostly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory infections and sore eyes in Gorjanci but as a calmative in Karst. Altogether, 15 different oral and 15 different topical medicinal preparations were reported. Folk knowledge was found to be influenced by the media, particularly popular books about medicinal plants that were published in the 20th century.ConclusionsThe present research documents the folk use of medicinal plants in Karst and Gorjanci, Slovenia. This rapidly changing practice needs to be documented before it disappears or changes.

BackgroundThis paper explores patterns of women’s medicinal plant knowledge and use in an urban area of the Brazilian Amazon. Specifically, this paper examines the relationship between a woman’s age and her use and knowledge of medicinal plants. It also examines whether length of residence in three different areas of the Amazon is correlated with a woman’s use and knowledge of medicinal plants. Two of the areas where respondents may have resided, the jungle/seringal and farms/colonias, are classified as rural. The third area (which all of the respondents resided in) was urban.MethodsThis paper utilizes survey data collected in Rio Branco, Brazil. Researchers administered the survey to 153 households in the community of Bairro da Luz (a pseudonym). The survey collected data on phytotherapeutic knowledge, general phytotherapeutic practice, recent phytotherapeutic practice and demographic information on age and length of residence in the seringal, on a colonia, and in a city. Bivariate correlation coefficients were calculated to assess the inter-relationships among the key variables. Three dependent variables, two measuring general phytotherapeutic practice and one measuring phytotherapeutic knowledge were regressed on the demographic factors.ResultsThe results demonstrate a relationship between a woman’s age and medicinal plant use, but not between age and plant knowledge. Additionally, length of residence in an urban area and on a colonia/farm are not related to medicinal plant knowledge or use. However, length of residence in the seringal/jungle is positively correlated with both medicinal plant knowledge and use.ConclusionsThe results reveal a vibrant tradition of medicinal plant use in Bairro da Luz. They also indicate that when it comes to place of residence and phytotherapy the meaningful distinction is not rural versus urban, it is seringal versus other locations. Finally, the results suggest that phytotherapeutic knowledge and use should be measured separately since one may not be an accurate proxy for the other.

ContextThe popular pharmacopoeia of Trinidad and Tobago is the result of a Creole pan-Caribbean culture, closely linked to history, and the result of a South American Indian, African, European and Asian heritage (Lans, 1996; Moodie-Kublalsingh, 1994; Littlewood, 1988; Simpson, 1962; Niehoff, 1959). Ethnoveterinary medicine in this thesis is the local, mainly plant-based medicines used for animals. Low cost inputs are necessary and important to the future of livestock production in Trinidad and Tobago. Investments in commercial drugs are not sound in situations where farmers report that high numbers of animals are lost or stolen (Table 1).Table 1. Summary of stolen, lost or dead animals in the 4 months prior to the November-December 1988, Tobago livestock census. SheepGoatsCowsNo. animals lost or stolen1183721No. farmers reporting lost / stolen animals37193No. dead animals62514948No. farmers reporting deaths1678431Source: Osuji et al. , 1988.ObjectiveResearch in ethnoveterinary knowledge was conducted as one possible solution to the existing constraints in animal health care in Trinidad and Tobago. The origins of the folk knowledge in Trinidad and Tobago were traced since socio-cultural rather than scientific logic provides the basis for some of the folk remedies. Knowledge of these cultural practices is necessary in the verification process, so that research effort is not wasted in chemical analysis of plants that are used for culturally specific reasons.MethodsThe methods used were inter-disciplinary and paid equal attention and respect to local and western-scientific perspectives (McCorkle et al. , 1996). The first phase of the research involved data collection carried out for five months in 1995. This data collection can be divided into four parts: the school essay method; the group and individual interviews; the focus group workshops and the secondary literature review. The school essay method used in the first step of the data collection is a Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) tool. The group interviews and the workshops used in the second and third steps of the data collection fall under the category of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) (Catley and Mohammed, 1996).In the second phase of the research, the researcher worked through previously known individuals and from previously existing social networks in building a snowball sample (Nalven, 1987). Known people helped in the creation of some networks by suggesting people who could be interviewed. Snowball sampling led to community members who were well recognised as knowing more than the average person knows. A purposive sample of ethnoveterinary key respondents was obtained, which minimised negative outcomes. This networking approach was necessary because there was no sampling frame of persons involved in traditional healing. From 1997 - 1999, the researcher also conducted research with one group of seven hunters based in south Trinidad. This research included participant observation which involved taking part in five hunts over the three years (going into the forest, observing the chase and capture, sharing a meal and sharing of take home game). Participant observation and in-depth interviewing of key respondents are traditional anthropological approaches (Etkin, 1993).Western science has often been used as the standard by which other knowledges should be evaluated (Watson-Verran and Turnbull, 1995). Western science has become the main means of establishing whether a technology works and how. The non-experimental validation of the ethnoveterinary medicines was undertaken in recognition of that fact.The purpose of this non-empirical validation is to provide a guide to laboratory researchers as to which of these plants merit further investigation. The first step of the methodology involved a review of the published historical, social science and ethnomedicinal literature to gain an understanding of Caribbean, Asian, African and Latin American concepts of health and illness. This step served to separate the plants used for cultural reasons from those with specific medicinal properties. The second step involved searching the published literature for information on the plants' known chemical constituents and pharmacological effects. The third step built on the first two and was an evaluation of whether there is a plausible biological mechanism by which the plant chemicals and known or possible physiological effects could achieve the results described by the respondents. Conclusions are based on these evaluations.ResultsThe dominant form of transmission seemed to be from the 'older heads' to the young. The most commonly mentioned 'older heads' were mothers, grannies and old aunts. The results were divided into nine case studies, pigs, commercial poultry and gamecocks, ruminants and reproductive health, pet dogs and hunting dogs, horses and [human] ethnomedicine. Three of the tables and one of the matrices are reproduced in this abstract.Eight plants are used for health problems and husbandry in pig farming. Erythrina pallida, E. micropteryx, Cecropia peltata, Bambusa vulgaris, Carica papaya, Citrus aurantium, Centropogon cornutus and Coffee arabica / robusta.The ethnoveterinary usage of locally available plants for commercial poultry in Trinidad are summarised in Table 10. Poultry keepers use seventeen medicinal plants for medicinal purposes.Table 10. Medicinal plants used by poultry farmers and poultry keepersScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseAllium sativumLiliaceaeGarlicBulbReduced appetiteKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeavesReduced appetiteMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineReduced appetiteNeurolaena lobataAsteraceaeZ'herbe á piqueLeavesReduced appetiteChrysobalanus icacoChrysobalanaceaeIpecak PoxCitrus aurantifoliaRutaceaeLimeJuice, pulpYawsCitrus speciesRutaceaeCitrus speciesJuice, peelRespiratory conditions, heat stressCoffee arabica / robustaRutaceaeCoffeeGroundsRespiratory conditionsEryngium foetidumApiaceaeChadron bénéeLeavesRespiratory conditionsMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineRespiratoryPimenta racemosa var. racemosaMyrtaceaeWest Indian BayLeavesRespiratoryRicinus communisEuphorbiaceaeCarapateLeavesRespiratoryAloe veraLiliaceaeAloeGelEnhance liveabilityKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeavesEnhance liveabilityOcimum sanctumLamiaceaeTulsiLeavesEnhance liveabilityAzadirachta indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesEctoparasitesCedrela odorataMeliaceaeCedarLeavesEctoparasitesCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasitesMomordica charantiaCucurbitaceaeCaraailiVineEctoparasitesPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeKojo rootLeavesEctoparasitesRenealmia alpiniaZingiberaceaeMardi grasLeavesEctoparasitesEryngium foetidumApiaceaeChadron bénéeLeavesMeat qualityNine plants are used for medicinal purposes by owner/trainers for game cocks in Trinidad. One of these plants (gru gru boeuf) was tentatively identified from the literature but eyebright has not yet been identified. The plants used were Citrus aurantium , Acrocomia ierensis (gru gru boeuf), Chenopodium ambrosioides , Gossypium sp. Aloe vera , Plantago major , Eyebright and Citrus limonia .The ethnoveterinary usages of locally available plants for ruminants in Trinidad and Tobago are summarised in Table 12. Twenty-one plants are used. Medicinal plant dosages for ruminants tended to be case and context specific. Phases of the moon were taken into consideration in farmers' decision making.Table 12. Medicinal plants used for ruminantsScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseBambusa vulgarisPoaceaeBambooLeafy branchesRetained placentaCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomeR/ placentaOryza sativaPoaceaeRice paddyGrainR/ placentaSenna occidentalisCaesalpiniaceaeWild coffeeLeaves, rootsR/placentaSpondias mombinAnacardiaceaeHogplumLeafy branchesRetained placentaAchryanthes indicaAmaranthaceaeMan better manLeaves, rootsOestrus inductionAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeavesO/ inductionMimosa pudicaFabaceaeTi marieRootsO/ inductionPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeGullyrootRootsO/ inductionRuellia tuberosaAcanthaceaeMinny rootRootsO/ inductionSenna occidentalisCaesalpiniaceaeWild coffeeLeaves, rootsOestrus inductionLaportea aestuansUrticaceaeStinging nettleLeavesUrinary problemsAnacardium occidentaleAnacardiaceaeCashewBarkDiarrhoeaPsidium guajavaMyrtaceaeGuavaBudsDiarrhoeaAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeavesPoulticeAsclepias curassavicaAsclepiadaceaeRed headFlowerPoulticeCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomePoulticeKalanchoe pinnataCrassulaceaeWonder of the worldLeafPoulticeMusa speciesMusaceaeBananaStemPoulticeNopalea cochenilliferaCactaceaeRachetteJointPoulticeTheobroma cacaoSterculiaceaeCocoaPodsPoulticeAloe veraLiliaceaeAloesLeafWoundsCurcuma longaZingiberaceaeTurmericRhizomeWoundsAzadirachta indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesAnthelminticPetiveria alliaceaPhytolaccaceaeGullyrootRootsAnthelminticRuellia tuberosaAcanthaceaeMinny rootRootsAnthelminticStachytarpheta jamaicensisVerbenaceaeVervineLeavesAnthelmintic, Milk productionCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasitesA methodology for the non-experimental validation of herbal medicines was used to evaluate nine (9) plants used for reproductive health in both ethnomedicine and ethnoveterinary medicine. These nine plants were Spondias mombin , Senna occidentalis , Petiveria alliacea , Ruellia tuberosa , Curcuma longa , Abelmochus esculentus , Bambusa vulgaris , Oryza sativa and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis . The purpose of the non-experimental validation was to provide a guide to laboratory researchers as to which of these plants merit further investigation (Browner et al ., 1988; Heinrich et al ., 1992). The link between medicinal plants used for both human and animal health was most clearly seen in the plants that are used for retained placenta, or to remove what the respondents called the "clot blood" associated with birth (the blood clots and haematomas). This connection is demonstrated.The plants, three of which are used for retained placenta, can be evaluated according to the terms "irritating" and "warming". Chemical constituents that correspond to the term "warming" are perhaps those that cause in vivo or in vitro uterine contractions. Uterine stimulants are ergometrine, oxytocin, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), acetylcholine and prostaglandins (PGE 2 and PGF 2α ) (Uguru et al. , 1998). Irritating chemical constituents according to Duke (2000) are 1,8-cineole, alpha-pinene, borneol, eugenol, oleic acid and vanillin. Chemicals with spasmogenic activity are 1,8-cineole, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), alpha-pinene and beta-pinene. The non-experimental validation of these nine plants suggested that these plants are used for rational reasons (in Western scientific terms) and are used similarly elsewhere. The role that culture and religion play in farmer decision making may explain the similarity between the ethnoveterinary practices found in Trinidad and Tobago and ethnomedicines used by women in the Caribbean, India, Africa and South America (Morton, 1981; IIRR, 1994).Twenty medicinal plants used for dogs in Trinidad and Tobago are presented in Table 14.Table 14. Medicinal plants used for pet dogsScientific nameFamilyCommon namePlant part usedUseAnacardium occidentaleAnacardiaceaeCashewBarkDiarrhoeaPsidium guajavaMyrtaceaeGuavaBuds, leavesDiarrhoeaS. jamaicensisVerbenaceaeVervineLeavesMilk let downBambusa vulgarisPoaceaeBambooLeavesGroomingCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesGroomingScoparia dulcisScrophulariaceaeSweet broomPlant topsGroomingBixa orellanaBixaceaeRoukouInside podsMangeCrescentia cujeteBignoniaceaeCalabashPulpMangeEclipta prostrataAsteraceaeCongo lalaPlant topsMange, Fungal skin infectionsMusa speciesMusaceaeMoko, BananaStemMangeManilkara zapotaSapotaceaeSapodillaSeedsMyiasisCajanus cajanFabaceaePigeon peaLeavesEctoparasiteCordia curassavicaBoraginaceaeBlack sageLeavesEctoparasiteMammea americanaGuttiferaeMammee appleSeedsEctoparasiteNicotiana tabacumSolanaceaeTobaccoLeavesEctoparasitePouteria sapotaSapotaceaeMamey sapoteSeedsEctoparasiteAreca catechuArecaceaeBetel nutFruit/nutAnthelminticA. indicaMeliaceaeNeemLeavesAnthelminticCajanus cajanFabaceaePigeon peaLeavesAnthelminticCarica papayaCaricaceaePapayaSeedsAnthelminticCassia alataCaesalpiniaceaeSennaLeavesAnthelminticC. ambrosioidesChenopodiaceaeWorm grassLeavesAnthelminticCocos nuciferaArecaceaeCoconutJellyAnthelminticGossypium speciesMalvaceaeCotton bushLeavesAnthelminticHunters use ethnoveterinary medicines for themselves and their hunting dogs. Plant use for hunting dogs is based on smell and plant morphological characteristics. These plant uses are embedded in a complex cultural context based on indigenous Amerindian beliefs (Heinrich et al. , 1992; Jovel et al. , 1996). Plants are used for snakebites, scorpion stings, for injuries and mange of dogs and to facilitate hunting success. The plants used are: Piper hispidum , Pithecelobium unguis-cati , Bauhinia excisa , Bauhinia cumanensis , Cecropia peltata , Aframomum melegueta , Aristolochia rugosa , Aristolochia trilobata , Jatroph a curcas , Jatropha gossypifolia , Nicotiana tabacum , Vernonia scorpioides , Petiveria alliacea , Renealmia alpinia , Justicia secunda , Phyllanthus urinaria , Phyllanthus niruri , Momordica charantia , Xiphidium caeruleum , Ottonia ovata , Lepianthes peltata , Capsicum frutescens , Dendropanax arboreus , Siparuma guianensis , Syngonium podophyllum , Monstera dubia , Solanum species, Costus scaber , Eclipta prostrata and Spiranthes acaulis , Barleria lupulina , Cola nitida and Acrocomia ierensis .Seventeen plants are used in equine ethnoveterinary medicine, several of which are used similarly in ethnomedicine. Exclusive to the horse case study were the use of Nasturtium officinale to increase blood counts, the use of Pueraria phaseoloides and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis as high protein feeds and the use of Mucuna pruriens as an irritant to enhance performance.The ethnomedicinal plants used in Trinidad and Tobago that did not seem to have ethnoveterinary parallels are summarised in Tables 17a - g. The majority of the ethnoveterinary and ethnomedicinal plants show the lowest level of validity established by Heinrich et al. (1992). This means that the plants (or a closely related species of the same genus) are used in geographically similar or different places for the treatment of similar illnesses. In order to achieve the highest level of validity the ethnobotanical, phytochemical and pharmacological literature has to support the ethnomedicinal use of the plant (Heinrich et al. , 1992).There is evidence that some of the ethnomedicinal plant uses have been transferred from the original countries of Trinidad's first migrants. This finding is matched by those of Voeks (1996) and Davis and Yost (1983) who found that the plant pharmacopoeia in South America is Creolized. The plants used are cultivated, exotic and opportunistic and are found in home gardens, roadsides and secondary forest rather than being indigenous species from the primary forests. Those plants with very few ethnomedicinal references are perhaps the true 'indigenous [to Trinidad] knowledge'. This is a tentative conclusion since it is possible that the relevant ethnomedicinal references for these plants were not found or are still unpublished (in the scientific literature). These 'indigenous' ethnomedicinal plant uses are those that involve Antigonon leptopus , Justicia secunda , Microtea debilis , Eupatorium macrophyllum , Centropogon cornutus , Bontia daphnoides , Parinari campestris , Brownea latifolia , Eupatorium triplinerve , Richeria grandis , Eupatorium triplinerve , Begonia humilis and Sansevieria guineensis . Some of the local claims of medicinal properties of the ethnomedicinal plants have been supported by scientific studies.Chapter 12 looks at the actor networks involved in science and folk medicine, pointing out some of the processes by which knowledge is accepted into or excluded from science. There are some local extension agents, animal health assistants, agricultural chemical agents, scientists and veterinarians who undervalue ethnoveterinary knowledge in favour of the scientific principles in which they were trained. There are others who are actively promoting the use of this knowledge. The reasons for both attitudes towards ethnoveterinary knowledge are examined using the constructivist perspective that all knowledge is socially constructed, with both strengths and weaknesses (Christoplos and Nitsch, 1996; Flora, 1992).Matrix 4. The Trinidad and Tobago scientific and societal actor networkTerms and DefinitionScientist/public responseConsequenceA stabilised network is only stable for those members who form/use/maintain it. Network users who are non-members of the community of practice suffer (Star, 1991). Scientist- communities of practice, have conventions of use.Scientists often take sabbaticals to do research in other countries so they can publish. Scientific texts are networks for the in-crowd. Social management of trust moves from herbalist to professionals.Trinidad and Tobago scientists sign on to the standardised technologies in order to gain from already established external scientific networks. This is a network with established norms.The Gatekeeper standpoint the strategies by which an actor-network becomes indispensable and maintains itself. Eminent scientists become gatekeepers. Gatekeeping influences topic selection and research funding for most scientists.Folk medicine is not 'modern', or 'progressive'. Research is done on 'poisonous' plants, and 'weed' control.Peer review and publishing in the 'right' journals excludes folk medicine from animal health science.An intermediary is anything passing between actors, which defines the relationship between them. Intermediaries describe their networks; they compose them by giving them order and form. Knowledge and funding, scientific articles, drugs, instruments and software are intermediaries (Callon, 1991).'Foreign' science is more profitable career-wise. Agro-chemical shops and Pharmacies sell drugs to farmers without prescriptions leading to abuse of drugs. There is no monitoring of drug residues at the abattoir.'Uncertain' folk medicine discarded in favour of 'certain' imported drugs. Discarding of local knowledge as folklore. Foreign technology becomes embedded in local social networks. Institutionalisation.Every enrolment entails both a failure to enrol and a partial destruction of the world of the non-enrolled (Star, 1991).Rejection of folk medicine as an actor since some involved in the conventional drug industry are afraid of loss of sales if farmers use their own plant-based solutions.The joint creation / nullification of knowledge: Farmers and herbalists want to gain some autonomy and prestige for their own knowledge, but are actively discouraged.Partial signings-on and commitments, no intermediaries, no standardised package, all lead to a Weakly convergent network.Under-funded actors in the Ministry of Agriculture find their status is constantly in question and it is difficult to mobilise other parts of the network.Veterinarians do not get sufficient resources from Government. Without money vets have less power so farmers use their own strategies.Chapter 13 briefly outlined the existing research approach taken to document medicinal plants, an alternative approach promoted by TRAMIL (Traditional Medicine in the Islands), the current bioprospecting environment, the major players and stakes involved and a vision for future research into ethno [veterinary] medicine. This chapter like Chapter 12 documents an attempt to create a shared vision of an approach to medicinal plant research and use that is sustainable and equitable to all the stakeholders (Costanza, 2000).ConclusionIn this research farmer's knowledge is taken and validated scientifically and in the future there are plans to return this validated knowledge to farmers. This approach can be justified in engaged anthropology, one of whose aims is to identify indigenous institutions or processes that could be strengthened and to support processes that could lead to culturally appropriate or effective corrective programs (Rappaport, 1993).The content of Caribbean and other folk pharmacopoeia shows that plant use is based on empiricism: informal clinical trials, observations and experiments (Barsh, 1997; Slikkerveer, 1995). Wagner (1993) has claimed based on a decade of chemical investigations of medicinal plants, that "all plants that are claimed to be antiinfectious, antiviral, antitumoural, or antiparasiticidal are good candidates for potential immunostimulating activities and deserve further investigation." Clinical trials will establish in scientific terms whether the Creole legacy of folk medicine is of positive value for human and animal health.

Abstract. Az-Zahra FR, Sari NLW, Saputry R, Nugroho GD, Sunarto, Pribadi T, Setyawan AD. 2021. Review: Traditional knowledge of the Dayak Tribe (Borneo) in the use of medicinal plants. Biodiversitas 22: 4633-4647. Dayak is the name for the native inhabitants of the island of Borneo. The Dayak Tribe uses natural and forest products in plants as traditional medicine for health treatment. This study aims to obtain information about the utilization of medicinal plants in the Dayak Tribe. The knowledge about traditional medicine by utilizing medicinal plants has been obtained from their ancestors since ancient times and inherited from generation to generation. The use of various medicinal plants used by the Dayak Tribe has differences in terms of the part of the plant taken, how to process it, and how to use it. This is because each Dayak Sub-tribe has its role model for using these medicinal plants. For example, the leaves are used in one area, and it could be that the plant roots are used in other areas. This paper reviews the use of medicinal plants to treat various diseases by 6 Dayak sub-tribes, namely: Desa Dayak Sub-tribe (member of Iban Dayak), Jangkang Dayak Sub-tribe (member of Klemantan Dayak), Bakumpai Dayak Sub-tribe (member of OtDanum-Ngaju Dayak), Kenyah Dayak Sub-tribe (member of Apokayan Dayak), Tagol Dayak Sub-tribe (member of Murut Dayak), and Siang Dayak Sub-tribe (member of Punan Dayak). The results from 6 Dayak Sub-tribes revealed 63 families of plants from which 133 species. The family most widely used for medicinal plants, namely Euphorbiaceae, consists of 9 species, and the leaf is the most commonly used part of the plants (47%). The traditional knowledge of the Dayak Tribe in utilizing plant resources will significantly help preserve biodiversity and domestication of medicinal plants. Suppose medicinal plants are exploited more than they should. In that case, it will undoubtedly have a significant impact on their availability in the forest area, and if it continues, it will cause the extinction of certain species. This implies the importance of preserving local wisdom in the Dayak Tribe so that the use of nature is done wisely and so that it remains sustainable. By knowing the benefits of medicinal plants, Dayak Tribe will want to conserve these medicinal plants to be used in the future.

Stunting masih menjadi masalah prioritas di Propinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat, khususnya di Kabupaten Bima. Salah satu penyebab masalah gizi adalah kurangnya asupan makanan dikarenakan anak susah makan. Namun Kabupaten Bima memiliki berbagai tanaman obat berbasis bahan alam lokal sebagai penambah nafsu makan pada balita susah makan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis persepsi ibu balita dalam pemanfaatan tanaman obat sebagai penambah nafsu makan berbasis tradisional dalam meningkatkan nafsu makan pada balita sebagai upaya pencegahan stunting. Metode penelitian menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan desain fenomenologi. Fokus penelitian adalah untuk mngetahui lebih mendalam mengenai persepsi ibu balita dalam pemanfaatan tanaman obat sebagai penambah nafsu makan berbasis tradisional dalam upaya pencegahan stunting. Pemilihan informan menggunakan tekhnik purposive dan snowball. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan cara wawancara secara mendalam, observasi dan dokumentasi. Teknik keabsahan data menggunakan triangulasi sumber, triangulasi teknik, dan triangulasi waktu. Teknik analisa data menggunakan model miles and huberman. Hasil penelitian adalah ibu balita yang memanfaatkan tanaman obat sebagai penambah nafsu makan pada balitanya memiliki persepsi bahwa tanaman obat berkhasiat untuk meningkatkan nafsu makan pada balitanya, merasa lebih aman digunakan karena tanpa bahan kimia dan sudah terbiasa digunakan secara turun-temurun, serta merasa lebih mudah mendapatkan bahannya. Keluarga sangat berperan dalam mendukung pemanfaatan tanaman obat sebagai penambah nafsu makan, sehingga ibu balita tidak cepat menyerah dalam pola asuh pada anak yang kesulitan makan. Perceptions of Mothers of Toddlers on the Use of Traditional-Based Medicinal Plants as Appetite Enhancers in Efforts to Prevent Stunting Abstract Stunting is still a priority problem in West Nusa Tenggara Province, especially in Bima Regency. One of the causes of nutritional problems is a lack of food intake because children have difficulty eating. However, Bima Regency has various medicinal plants based on local natural ingredients to increase the appetite of toddlers who have trouble eating. This study aims to analyze the perceptions of mothers of toddlers regarding the use of traditional-based medicinal plants as appetite enhancers in increasing appetite in toddlers as an effort to prevent stunting. The research method uses a qualitative approach with a phenomenological design. The focus of the research is to find out more deeply about the perceptions of mothers of toddlers regarding the use of traditional-based medicinal plants as appetite enhancers in efforts to prevent stunting. The selection of informants used purposive and snowball techniques. Data collection was carried out by means of in-depth interviews, observation and documentation. Data validity techniques use source triangulation, technical triangulation, and time triangulation. The data analysis technique uses the Miles and Huberman model. The results of the research were that mothers of toddlers who used medicinal plants to increase the appetite of their toddlers had the perception that medicinal plants were efficacious in increasing the appetite of their toddlers, felt they were safer to use because they were without chemicals and had been used for generations. The family plays a very important role in supporting the use of medicinal plants to increase appetite, so that mothers of toddlers do not give up quickly in parenting children who have difficulty eating.

-

The COVID-19 pandemic has renewed global interest in medicinal plants as accessible sources of prophylactic and supportive therapies. Ethnobotanical research provides an important foundation for developing plant-based medicines with preventive and therapeutic potential. This study aimed (1) to investigate the distribution and indications for the use of medicinal plants in the prevention and relief of COVID-19-related symptoms among the Bulgarian population, and (2) to identify culturally significant species with potential for further development as antiviral agents. A total of 513 respondents from different regions and demographic groups in Bulgaria were interviewed. Their knowledge regarding the use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention or treatment was quantitatively assessed using ethnobotanical indices: relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (FIC), fidelity level (FL), and use value (UV). Participants reported 45 species belonging to 43 genera and 23 families. The highest RFC and UVs were recorded for Matricaria chamomilla L., Tilia sp., Thymus vulgaris L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Mentha sp., Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck, Rosa canina L., and Sideritis scardica Griseb. Culturally significant species identified were Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Tilia sp., Mentha sp., Sideritis scardica Griseb, Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck. This ethnobotanical survey in Bulgaria documents culturally important medicinal plants that may have potential applications in prophylaxis and complementary therapy for COVID-19.

Breast cancer is the second most frequent type of cancer in the world and the most common among women and its incidence has been increasing over time. From the 70s of the last century, the use of alternative therapies became popular, with their adherence increasing annually, starting to be used by various groups, including cancer patients. Plants are one of the oldest forms that the population of various regions and cultures in the world uses as a palliative method and with a medicinal purpose for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. The objective of this study was to identify the use of medicinal plants in the alternative treatment of breast cancer. The survey data were collected from February to March 2022, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The participation of women in the research stood out that of men. The age group of 31 to 40 years stood out from the others, the use of medicinal plants is common in 66.7% of the interviewees. About breast cancer, 31.5% reported that there are cases in the family, which are treated with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, surgery and allopathic medication. 85.2% who believe in treatment with the use of medicinal plants, the most cited plants were lemon balm, lemongrass and mint, chamomile, boldo and aloe, these are generally used by respondents. Aloe vera, soursop, basil and noni were cited as plants used to treat breast cancer. The leaves are the main part used by the interviewees, and the main form of use was infusion/tea, mentioned 45 times by the participants. After starting to use the plants, 85.7% stated that their symptoms had improved. As for the origin of knowledge about the use of medicinal plants, most claimed to have learned from their parents and grandparents. Medicinal herbs are mainly purchased at markets/fairs. For 61.1% of participants, medicinal plants do not pose health risks.